
J 



^Library of Congress. 



iUNITED STATES OF AMERICA.; 



V 



NORWAY 
AND ITS GLACIERS 



VISITED IN 1851; 

FOLLOWED BY 

JOURNALS OF EXCURSIONS 
IN THE HIGH ALPS OF DAUPHINE, 

■ J $ \ 

BERNE, AND SAVOY. 



JAMES B? FORBES, D.C.L., F.R.S., Sec. R.S. Ed. 

CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE INSTITUTE OF PRANCE, 
AND OF OTHER ACADEMIES; AND PROFESSOR OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY IN THE 
UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH. 



EDINBURGH: 
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK. 

MDCCCLin. 



38541 



^tn or COSgJfejs 



KDlNnUIir.il l'HINTKI) UV II. AND K. CLAM, 



TO 

PROFESSOR LANGBERG, 

OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CMISTIANIA, 

THIS VOLUME IS DEDICATED, 
IN TOKEN OF RESPECT FOR HIS CHARACTER AND ATTAINMENTS. 

AS WELL AS 

IN GRATEFUL ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF HIS 
UNWEARIED KINDNESS. 



CONTENTS. 



Page 

Preliminary Chapter ....... xvii 



NO K WAY. 

CHAPTEE I. 

Hull to Christiania — Christiania to the Dovre-Field . . 1 

The Lindesnaes — Aspect of the Norwegian Coast — The 
Christiania-Fiord — Town of Christiania — Its Position — 
Appearance — Pretensions — Character of its Climate — 
Aspect of Surrounding Country — Departure for Thron- 
dhjem (Drontheim) — Carriole Travelling — The Miosen 
Lake — Gulbrandsdal — Remarkable Absence of Villages 
in Norway — Inn at Tofte — Ascent of Dovre-Field — Its 
Aspect — Arrive at Jerkind. 



CHAPTER II. 

Sneeh^ettan — Dovre-Field to Throndhjem (Drontheim) . 19 

Route from Jerkind to Sneehaettan — The Ascent — Height of 
Sneehsettan — The View from the Top — Return to Jer- 
kind — Kongsvold — The Vaarstige — Action of Glaciers — 
Maintenance of the Roads in Norway — Travelling in 
Spring — Drivstuen — Aamoselv — Geology of the Dovre- 
Field according to Naumann — The Rivers Oerkel and 
Guul — Throndhj em . 



viii 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER III. 

Page 

NORDLAND .......... 39 

Character of Northern Norway — Leave Throndhjem by 
Steamer — Vaers — Torghattan — Its Cavern — Roches 
Moutonnees — Yachts — The Seven Sisters — CExtind — 
Enter the Arctic Circle — Glaciers of Fondal — Bodo — 
Scenery of Vest-Fiord and the Lofodden Islands — Arrival 
at Tromso. 



CHAPTER IV. 

FlNMARKEN. .......... 68 

Tromso — Visit to Lapp Encampment — Voyage continued — 
Ulfs-Fiord — Lyngen- Fiord — Pippertind Glacier — 
Skjservo — Glacier of Kaagen — Qvenanger-Fiord and 
Mountains — Serene Midnight — Jokuls-Field and Glaciers 
— Arrival at Kaa -Fiord (Alten) — Climate — Character of 
the Country — Excursion to Bosekop and Alten River — 
The Quaens — Return Voyage. 



CHAPTER V. 

Bergen . \ • ~ . . . . . . ylfm 

Leave Throndhjem — Molde — Aalesund — Homeln — En- 
trance of Sogne-Fiord — Glacier Markings — Singular 
Passage of Alversund — Arrival at Bergen — Aspect and 
Situation of the Town — Climate — Total Eclipse of the 
Sun on the 28th July 1851 — Ancient Total Eclipse at 
Stiklastad. 



CHAPTER VI. 

The Hakdanger-Fiord . . . . . . .119 

Land Journey to Oos — Oos to Teroe — Reception at the Inn 
— Kvi ndherred - Fiord - Rosendal — Traces of Ancient 
Glaciers — Method of catching Salmon — Moranger-Fiord 
Bondhuus — The Glacier and its Moraine — Oevrehuus — 
Passage of the Glacier of the Folgefond 1o Tockheim — 
Odde — The Sor-Fiord — Ullensvang — U tne — Graven — 
Scenery — Vossevangen. 



CONTENTS. 



IX 



CHAPTER VII. 

Page 

The Sogne- Fiord 143 

Vinje to Gudvangen — The Narce-Fiord — Singular and Wild 
Scenery — Lekanger — The Systrand — Fjserlands-Fiord 
and its Glaciers — Reach Stolum — The Suphelle Glacier 
described — Its remarkably Low Level — Return to Le- 
kanger — Standing Stones of Nargla — Sogndal — Ancient 
Moraine — Geology and Fine Scenery — Solvorn on the 
Lyster-Fiord — Ronneid — Arrive at Justedal. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

Justedal — The Fillefield . . . . . . . ^ 160 

The Krondal — Glacier of Berset — Its Veined Structure — 
Dirt-Bands — And probable Annual Progress — Its Mo- 
raines — Modern Decrease of the Glaciers of Justedal — 
Leave the Krondal — Remarkable Roches Moutonnees — 
Nygaard Glacier — Its Position and Size — Its Structure 
compared to the Swiss Glaciers — Its Ancient Moraines 
— Return to Solvorn — Scenery of the Sogne-fiord to Lasr- 
dalsoren — Carriole Journey to Christiania — Farther re- 
marks on Travelling in Norway — Church at Borgund — 
The Fillefield — Little Miosen Lake — Arrive at Chris- 
tiania— Return to England. 



CHAPTER IX. 

On Some Points in the Physical Geography of Norway, 

Chiefly Connected with its Snow-Fields and Glaciers . 185 

Introductory Remarks. § 1. On the Configuration of Norway 
— Its Ground Plan — Its Mountainous Districts or Fields 
are usually Plateaux — Large Proportion of Elevated 
Area — The Kjolen Mountains — Their existence denied 
by some Geographers — Three Sections of Norway. § 2. 
On some peculiarities of the Climate of Norway — Less 
severe than commonly supposed, or than any other Land 
in the same Parallel — The Causes of this — The Summer 
and Winter Curves of equal Temperature — Contrast of 

A 



X 



CONTENTS. 



Pa«k 

the two sides of the Peninsula. § 3. On the Position 
of the Snow-Line in Norway — Mainly determined by the 
Summer Temperature — Particulars of Observations on 
the Subject — On the Limit of Growth of the Birch — 
Influence of the Sea in depressing the Snow-Line — 
Table of Results. 



CHAPTER X. 

On some Points in the Physical Geography of Norway, chiefly 
connected with its Snow Fields and Glaciers — Continued 
from Chapter ix. ........ 217 

§ 4. Essay towards an Enumeration of the Principal Snow 
Fields and Glaciers of Norway. § 5. The Glaciers of 
Norway compared with those of Switzerland — Analogy 
perfect — Differences less than might be expected from 
Difference in Latitude — Due chiefly to the different 
Relief of the Country. § 6. On the former Extension 
of Glaciers in Norway — Moraines of Ancient Glaciers first 
described by Esmark — Similar to those of Switzerland 
and other Countries — Change of Climate necessary to 
cover Norway with Snow and Ice not Excessive. § 7. 
On some Observations desirable to be made. § 8. On 
some peculiarities of the Scenery of Norway — Waterfalls. 



EXCURSIONS IN THE ALPS. 

CHAPTER I. 

Narrative of Excursions in the Alps of Dauphine in 1839 and 

1841 255 

Boundaries of the District described — Mountains of Oisans — 
Their Geological Peculiarities — Hot Springs — Allevard 
— Les Sept Laux — Allemont — Bourg d' Oisans — Valley 
of the Romanche — Valley of St. Christophe — Venos — Fall 
of a Mountain — Village of St. Christophe — Scene from 
Les Etages — Mont Oursine — Hamlet of La Berarde. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER IT. 

Page 

Excursions in the Alps of Dauphtne — Continued . . . 274 

Cross the Col de Sais, exceeding 10,000 feet — Glacier de la 
Condamina — Descent to La Chapelle — Passage of the Col 
de Celar — Glacier and Dangerous Precipices — Entraigues 
— Ville de Val Louise — Mont Pelvoux — Monestier — Col 
de Lautaret — Superposition of Gneiss to Lias — La Grave 
— The Scenery — Combe de Malaval — Passage of the 
Col des Infernets — Remarks on the Geology of the Mon- 
tagnes de l'Oisans. 



CHAPTER III. 

Excursion on the Glaciers of the Bernese Alps, preceding the 

Ascent of the Jungfrau . . . . ' . . . 296 

Engagement with M. Agassiz — Residence on the Glacier of 
the Lower Aar — Topography of the Bernese Oberland 
and the Glaciers originating near the Finsteraarhorn — 
Two Panoramas — Excursion from the Grimsel to Glacier 
of Aletsch in Valais — Departure — The Glacier and Col 
of the Oberaar — Descent on the Glacier of Viesch — 
Caverns in the Neve — Enormous Block of Stone on the 
Moraine — Arrival at the Chalets of Marjelen — Prepara- 
tion for the Ascent of the Jungfrau. 



CHAPTER IV. 

The Ascent of the Jungfrau ...... 323 

History of attempts to ascend the Jungfrau — Departure from 
the Chalets of Marjelen — Lake and Glacier of Aletsch — 
Prospect of the Range of the Jungfrau — The Firn or 
Neve — The Ascent commences — Passage of the Great 
Crevasse — Col of the Roth Thai reached — Final ascent 
of 800 feet on a Slope of Ice — The Summit described — 
The View, and Stupendous Cloud — Return to the Chalets 
by Moonlight — The lower portion of the Glacier of 
Aletsch described — Its termination in the Ravine of 
Naters — Arrival at Briegg. 



Xll 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER V. 

Page 

Narrative of the Passage of the Col de Salena, from the 

Valley of Chamouni to that of Ferret in 1850 . . 330 

Peculiarities of the Chain of Mont Blanc — Glacier of Le 
Tour little visited — Leave the Col de Balme — Ascend 
the Glacier — Its Features — Attain the Ridge — Its un- 
expected Elevation — Exceeds the Col du Geant — Pro- 
posed as an Experimental Station — Descent on the 
Glacier of Salena — Fine Protogine — Topography — Diffi- 
cult Route — Sudden Fog — Extrication — Reach Orsieres 
in the Val Ferret. 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



M APS. 



Page 



Map of Norway, shewing the general Distribution of Perpetual 

Snow . . . . . . At the end of the Volume. 

Map of the Ymes-field . . . . . . . 225 

LITHOGRAPHIC VIEWS. 



Glacier of Bondhuus 
Vaarstige, Dovre-Field 
Mountains near Folden-Fiord 
Kafte-sund, Lofodden 
Qvenanger Tinderne 
Glaciers of the Niis-Fiord 
Suphelle Glacier, Fjserland . 
Nygaard Glacier, Justedal 
Valley of La Berarde, Dauphine 
The Jungfrau, from the Glacier of Aletsch 



Frontispiece. 

31 



58 
63 
78 
81 
150 
167 
270 
315* 



/ 



WOOD ENGRAVINGS. 

Entrance of the Rafte-sund, Lofodden ..... xvii 

Torghattan , ...... 39 

Lovunden and Threnen Islands ...... 50 

ffixtind . . . . . . • . . - . 51 



XIV 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Pagr 

Blaamands-Field ........ 56 

Lapp Encampment ........ 68 

Kaagen Island .......... 77 

Kaa-Fiord, from Mr. Thomas's House ..... 86 

Terraces at Quaenvig ....... 92 

The Fja?rlands-Fiord . . , . . . ' . . 143 

Sogndals-Fiord, from Nargla Tune ..... 154 

Plan of the Glaciers of Krondal ... . . . . 165 

Little Miosen Lake 182 

Three Sections of Scandinavia . . . . . . 197 

Scene at La Berarde, Dauphine ...... 255 

Mont Pelvoux, from Val Louise . . . . . . 274 

The Bernese Alps from the North and South . . . . 301 

Section of a Crevasse . . . . . . . . 317 

Sketch of the Top of the Jungfrau . ... . . 321 

Plan of ditto 321 

The Glacier du Tour, from the Aiguille de la Gliere, Chamouni . 330 

Plan of the Glacier of Salena ...... 335 



CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS. 



Page 5. I have, it seems, over-estimated the population of Christiania. 
Mr. A. K. Johnston states that at the latest census in 1845 it was 
only 31,703. 

Page 209. On the snow limit at Sulitelma. I find that in Wahlenberg's 
original work (Berattelse, page 48), the snow line is fixed at 4100 
French feet at Quickjock, on the east of the Sulitelma range, and at 
3100 on the western slopes. The mean, or 3600 feet, is evidently the 
authority for Von Buch's 1169 metres. I am still rather at a loss to 
reconcile this with Wahlenberg's own statement of four years' later 
date, which I have quoted in the text from his Flora Lapponica that 
3300 is the average height of the snow line in Lapland. If so, the 
observation at Quickjock must be exceptional. On the whole, we may 
perhaps admit that the adopted snow line in the text is somewhat 
underrated for lat. 70°. 



ENTRANCE OK THE RAPTE-SUND, LOPODDEN ISLANDS.— See p. 62. 



J AM anxious that the intention of this work should not 
be misunderstood. 
None I hope will suspect me of the presumption of writ- 
ing a systematic account of a country like Norway — so vast 
in extent, so difficult to explore, and so full of interest — 
founded on the impression of only a single summer's tour. 
The journey had been looked forward to for many years. 
When accomplished, it was with an unavoidable restriction 
as to time ; I had no thoughts of publishing a book as the 
result. Should I succeed in acquiring information of any 
value on the formation of glaciers in Norway (a subject to 
which I had previously devoted much attention) a paper 
communicated to one of our scientific societies, and printed 

a 



xviii 



IN TKODUCTOKY EEMAKKS. 



in their transactions, seemed all that was desirable for 
making it known. To this course, however, an objection 
occurred from the nature of the materials I had collected. 
Not the least important part of these (as I considered) was 
a series of sketches of the glaciers and snow fields of Nor- 
way throughout the entire range of latitude in which they 
occur, namely, between the 60th and 70th parallels. Of 
these I know of only one that has been engraved, or rather 
lithographed, so as to give any idea of this great natural 
feature of Scandinavia. I did not think it reasonable to 
request any of our publishing societies to give these illus- 
trations in the careful and expensive style which I thought 
requisite. 

In the meantime, anxious to preserve all the impressions 
I could of a hasty, but to me most interesting and sugges- 
tive journey, immediately on my return home I began to 
extend my notes and to compare and correct my inferences 
by studying some of the best topographical works, particu- 
larly the Gcea JSforvegica of Keilhau and his colleagues. 
This occupation I continued and completed as an agreeable 
employment during a tedious convalescence from illness. 
When it was finished, I reverted to the idea of describing 
the glaciers of Norway, with the aid of sufficiently detailed 
landscape illustrations. I explained the circumstances to 
the Messrs. Black of Edinburgh, the enterprizing publishers 
of my former work on the Alps, who willingly undertook 
the publication both of MS. and Plates, exactly in the form 
which I requested of them. During printing, the earlier 
chapters have been somewhat expanded, so as to take off 
some of the meagreness of the original notes, at the risk 
of repeating occasionally information to be found in previ- 
ous books of travels. 



MOTIVES FOE THIS PUBLICATION. 



XIX 



Had it seemed at all probable that I might return to 
Norway and prosecute my enquiries with, all the incompar- 
able advantages of a second visit — first impressions having 
been defined and corrected by intermediate study — I should 
probably have avoided publication, at least in this form. 
But a pretty long experience in such matters has convinced 
me that they act wisely and well, who, having used their 
opportunities to the best of their power, communicate the 
results of their observations to the world without waiting 
for a period (never perhaps to arrive) when they may them- 
selves have the credit of completing and perfecting them. It 
is better, whilst the freshness of recollection is undimmed — 
and the mind is in a position to draw a correct parallel be- 
tween older and quite recent observations, and thus give to 
our descriptions the necessary development — to throw into 
them whatever there may be of value in our peculiar ex- 
perience or habits of investigation, and frankly to invite 
our fellow labourers to do in our stead what we would 
gladly have done but for some inevitable want of health, 
leisure, or opportunity. Were this course more generally 
followed in the sciences, both of observation and experiment, 
I am persuaded that, by grasping at less we should attain 
more — even in personal reputation — and should unquestion- 
ably advance the interests of knowledge. 

It is with feelings thus unambitious that I submit these 
pages to the reader. If the journey was too rapid to allow 
of my accomplishing a great deal, it yet enabled me to see 
distinctly how much remains to be done to promote our 
acquaintance with the physical geography of Norway, even 
in the more limited aspects in which it is considered in the 
present work. Much indeed has been done by the labours 
of the excellent geologists and geographers whom Norway 



INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 



still possesses, by Keilhau, by Munch, by Vibe, as well as 
by Esniark, Christian Smith, and Hertzberg, whom she has 
lost. Scandinavia has produced one physical geographer of 
the first order, Wahlenberg, the De Saussure of the north, 
and his labours were worthily extended by the penetrating 
and gifted Leopold von Buch ; but there is still room for 
more to be done, especially with reference to the progress 
of science in the last forty years. The climate of Norway, 
one of the most interesting in the world, has been very 
partially ascertained, though a slight impulse from the 
scientific authorities at Christiania would readily establish 
a chain of meteorological stations. The size of the country 
is so immense, and, in many parts, objects of interest are 
so thinly scattered, that it is to the Norwegians themselves 
that we look for fuller information as to the topographical 
intricacies of vast fields and fiords which are at present 
hardly known, and which yet unquestionably include many 
interesting peculiarities.* The highest mountain in Nor- 
way, the Galdhopiggen or Ymes-field, if it be indeed the 
highest, has been known but a few years, and is as yet 
measured, I believe, only by estimation. There are many 
glaciers which probably no man of science or intelligent 
traveller has ever seen, and amongst these it is possible that 
there may be some larger than any now known in Norway, 
or presenting other remarkable peculiarities. One which I 
have myself described, perhaps for the first time (the Su- 
phelle-Brae), possesses singularities such as I have nowhere 
else seen. 

* Some materials exist, generally but little known, in the form of local 
periodica] works of a statistical or scientific character, published at Christi- 
ania, in the Danish language. For a reference to, and extracts from some 
of the more interesting of these, I am indebted to the kindness of my friends 
there. 



NORWEGIAN HOSPITALITY. 



XXI 



I have effaced from these pages nearly all that was 
gratefully recorded in my notes of the individual instances 
of generous hospitality and friendly interest which are ex- 
tended throughout Norway to even the passing stranger, 
with unstinting hand and heart. In one or two instances, 
where the individuals acted in an official as well as private 
capacity, I have allowed myself to mention names. And 
I take advantage of the exception to express my sincere 
acknowledgments to Mr. drowe, the worthy representative 
of England as Consul-General at Christiania, and to his 
family, for the unwearied kindness and important assistance 
which I received from them during both my visits to the 
capital. In the case of private Norwegian gentlemen, I feel 
that I have no right to mention names, or to describe them 
by implication. I know that their delicacy shrinks from it, 
and that they consider their traditional hospitality as a 
privilege, and not as constituting a debt, least of all one 
which can be cancelled by its mere publication. Of society, 
therefore, as I saw it in Norway, I shall not be expected 
to say anything except in the most general terms. 

But I may here express my frank acknowledgments for 
the important information respecting the physical geo- 
graphy of Norway, and its snow-fields in particular, which 
has been courteously communicated to me (chiefly from 
unpublished sources) by Professors Munch, Keilhau, and 
Langberg of Christiania, and by Captain Vibe of the Nor- 
wegian Eoyal Engineers. Though the ninth and tenth 
chapters of this work were written before much of this 
information reached me, they have been since thoroughly 
revised, and much additional information has been added in 
the form of footnotes. On the whole, it is not presumptuous 
to believe that these chapters contain nearly the sum of 



xxii 



INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 



what is yet known connected with the snow-line and 
existing glaciers in Norway. It is to the liberality of 
my friends at Christiania that it owes this completeness. 

In the spelling of names of places, I have usually fol- 
lowed the Gcea Norvegica, though not invariably ;, nor is 
that work always consistent throughout. In fact, in a 
country like Norway, many names are spelt merely by 
ear. The northern capital, Drontheim, as it is usually 
called in England, I have written as I find it in official do- 
cuments, Throndhjem. The words fjeld and fjord, so 
frequent in the composition of local names, signifying 
mountain, and lake or firth, I have written field and fiord, as 
more conformable to English usage, though it may be ques- 
tioned whether it is desirable to do so. I may observe, 
in passing, that j in Danish or Norwegian is ahvays 
equivalent to the English y, and that the harsh-looking 
combination hj has nearly the same sound. In attempting 
to pronounce the language, the beginner should also bear 
steadily in mind that aa has the power of o in cold. 

A considerable number of heights have been approxi- 
mately ascertained in Norway (nearly all by the barometer), 
and many of these are referred to in this work. The old 
Norwegian, which is almost the same as the German or 
Rhenish foot, is almost exactly three per cent, longer than 
the English foot, and this proportion has been used in the 
reductions, and the heights given merely to the nearest Ten 
feet. Indeed, greater nicety would have been absurd, as 
very few heights in Norway are ascertained within 50 feet, 
and probably the greater part not within 100. The Norsk 
mile is equal to about seven English. 

In every case, where miles or feet are mentioned in this 
work without farther qualification, English miles and feet are 



ALPINE JOURNALS— ILLUSTRATIONS. 



XX111 



intended. Fahrenheit's scale is also used for the thermo- 
meter. 

As a principal object of these pages has been to connect 
my observations on the glaciers of Switzerland and Savoy 
with those which I have made in the north of Europe, I 
have thought it a suitable addition to the volume to incor- 
porate three narratives of alpine journeys of older date, 
which all refer to the wildest and most ice-bound regions 
of that noble chain. These were written at the time the 
journeys were made, or soon after, in the same detail, and 
nearly in the same words as they are now presented to the 
reader. They seemed to me to be worthy of preservation, 
and I am not likely to find a more natural occasion for pub- 
lishing them. The first excursion — that in the Alps of 
Dauphine — refers to a region as little known as the remoter 
parts of Norway itself. The Mont Pelvoux, the highest 
between Mont Blanc and the Mediterranean, of which I 
made the circuit nearly twelve years ago, is indeed as little 
frequented now as it was then. The narrative of the ascent 
of the Jungfrau, performed the same year in company with 
M. Agassiz, is now for the first time printed nearly verbatim 
from my journals. The account of the crossing of the chain 
of Mont Blanc by an undescribed pass higher than the Col 
du Geant, may be considered as a supplement to my former 
researches in Savoy. This journey was of much later date 
than the two former ones ; and, indeed, was the last which I 
made in the Alps. 

The illustrations in this volume are all taken from my 
own sketches. My thanks are certainly due to Mr. Charles 
Haghe, for the extraordinary fidelity, as well as skill, with 
which they are transferred to stone. I may safely affirm, 
that if there be any exaggeration in these plates, it is I who 



xxiv 



INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 



am responsible for it ; ° but I believe there is not. I fear that 
1 cannot speak with quite equal confidence as to the wood- 
cuts, in a few of which the outlines have not been correctly- 
rendered. 

The map of Norway accompanying the volume has been 
constructed with reference not only to the tour, but to the 
account of the Physical Geography, in Chapters IX. and X. 
It will be found, I believe, to give a more correct represen- 
tation both of the outlines and relief of the country, than 
is to be found in many maps of more pretension. 

I shall gratefully receive, through my Publishers, in- 
formation respecting matters on which I have expressed 
myself doubtfully, or have recommended to the research of 
others ; still more, of course, on those, concerning which I 
may have inadvertently made mistakes. 

JAMES D. FORBES. 



Clifton, Bristol, May 1853. 



* Neither Mr. Haghe nor myself are altogether answerable for the 
precise tints used in printing. I regret to observe that, in some copies at 
least, the colour of two of the illustrations has been accidentally overcharged. 



CHAPTER I. 



HULL TO CHRISTIANIA— CHRISTIANIA TO THE 
DOVRE-FIELD. 

THE LINDESNAES— ASPECT OF THE NORWEGIAN COAST — THE CHRISTIANIA-FIORD — TOWN 
OF CHRISTIANIA — ITS POSITION —APPEARANCE — PRETENSIONS — CHARACTER OF ITS 
CLIMATE — ASPECT OF SURROUNDING COUNTRY — DEPARTURE FOR THRONDHJEM 
(DRONTHEIM) — CARRIOLE TRAVELLING— THE MIOSEN LAKE— GULBRANDSDAL— REMARK- 
ABLE ABSENCE OF TILLAGES IN NORWAY— INN AT TOFTE— ASCENT OF DOVRE-FIELD — 
ITS ASPECT— ARRIVE AT JERKIND. 

I left England in the Courier steamship, bound from 
Hull to Christiania, in the night of the 21st June 1851. 
After a stormy passage across the North Sea, the coast of 
Norway was in view early on the morning of the 24th. 
Notwithstanding a heavy sea from the north-west, we made 
the headland of Lindesnaes with precision, and were soon 
in comparatively smooth water. It was with great interest 
and curiosity that I surveyed the southern coast of Nor- 
way, about Christiansand and Arendal. The first impres- 
sion was rather one of disappointment. The character of 
the scenery here is remarkably monotonous. Hills of a 
thousand feet high, or less, devoid of boldness, and with 
but few and narrow intervening valleys, form the main- 
land — whilst a multitude of small islands, which range 
along the coast, are undistinguishable from it when viewed 

B 



2 



CHRISTIANIA TO DOVRE-FIELD. 



from the sea, owing to the want of any decided relief or 
variety of character. 

The gloomy weather added, no doubt, to the mo- 
notony of the scene; and our distance from the shore 
being greater than I at first sight believed, led me to un- 
derrate the elevation of the land. It was only by observ- 
ing how slowly objects seemed displaced by the motion of 
the ship, that I became aware of the real scale of the 
country which I now saw for the first time ; and on closer 
observation, I perceived that the low, rounded, and rocky 
hills, which I at first had believed to be bare, were almost 
everywhere covered, or at least dotted over, with woods 
of pine, which, descending almost to the shore, gave a 
peculiarity of character to the scenery, at the sametime 
that it afforded a scale by which to estimate its magni- 
tude. These forests distinguish this part of Norway from 
those of the Hebrides, which it in other respects resembles. 
The gneiss islands of Tiree and Coll occurred to my mind 
the moment that I saw the Norwegian coast, which is less 
than a degree and a-half of latitude farther north, and 
doubtless the same causes have produced the similarity of 
character, acting in like circumstances. Both belong to 
that great gneiss formation so prevalent in Norway, and 
also in Scotland, with which few rocks can compare in 
their resistance to atmospheric action and mechanical force. 
In both cases they have been subjected for ages to the 
action of the most tremendous seas which wash any part 
of Europe, and they have probably been abraded by me- 
chanical forces of another kind, which have given the 
rounded outlines to even the higher hills, but the exact 
nature of which is yet subject to great doubt. 

The same wooded and undulating character prevails 



CHRISTIANIA. 



3 



all tlie way to Ckristiania. The entrance of the Christiania- 
fiord is marked by a lighthouse on the island of Fserder, 
which singularly resembles Inchkeith in the Firth of 
Forth ; but the short night had set in long before we 
reached the capital. On my return southwards I saw the 
fiord more perfectly. My impression, however, was the 
same, that its beauty has been overrated. The monotony 
of the forms, the continuity of the woods, the absence of 
almost the smallest sea-cliff or sandy bay, weary the eye, 
even though the scene is continually changing, and the 
shores ever verdant. An exception must be made, how- 
ever, in favour of the immediate environs of Christiania, 
where the fiord expands into an exceedingly irregular basin, 
the coasts are steeper, and, at the sametime, varied by the 
aspect of cultivation and of deciduous trees; where numerous 
detached houses enliven the low grounds, and the more dis- 
tant hills have a bolder character. 

Christiania itself is seen to advantage from the fiord, as 
well as from many places in its environs. It is built on an 
agreeable slope, facing the south.. Its suburbs are inter- 
mingled with wood. The old castle of Aggershuus, pic- 
turesque in form, adorned with fine trees, and standing on 
a bold promontory, commanding at once the fiord and the 
greater part of the town, has a striking effect. The city 
graduates into the country by means of innumerable villas, 
built usually in commanding situations, which remind one 
of the environs of Geneva. Indeed, there is something in 
the entire aspect of the town and surrounding scenery, 
which is exceedingly pleasing and peculiar. The traveller 
who is acquainted with the aspects of middle and southern 
Europe finds himself at a loss to draw a comparison. The 
clearness of the air, the warmth of the sun, and a certain 



4 



CHRISTIANIA TO DOVKE-FIELD. 



intensity of colour which clothes the landscape, involun- 
tarily recall southern latitudes, and even the shores of the 
Mediterranean. But the impression is counteracted by the 
background of pine forest, which reminds him of some of 
the higher and well-wooded cantons of Switzerland, to 
which the varied outline of the fiord — which may compare, 
in irregularity with the lake of the four cantons — lends an 
additional resemblance ; yet again we miss the background 
of alpine peaks and perpetual snows. 

Wherever the traveller may choose to fancy himself, 
his last idea would probably be (what is really the fact) 
that he is here in the latitude of the Shetland Islands, 
nearly in the parallel of Lerwick, and a degree north of 
Kirkwall. Some tourist, in a moment of spleen, has 
chosen to draw a comparison between the county town 
of Orkney and the capital of Norway, in favour of the for- 
mer ; but the comparison is too absurd to be regarded as 
more than a jest — the only point of superiority of Kirkwall, 
its noble cathedral (which it owes besides to a Norwegian 
architect and Norwegian builders), being quite incapable 
of concealing the manifest inferiority in every other quality 
of beauty, greatness, or convenience, granted by nature, or 
attained by art. Every one naturally refers what he sees 
in other countries to the standard of home, and the contrast 
of southern Norway to the extreme northern parts of Great 
Britain, came upon me perpetually, with a force which 
added great zest to the scenery of a country already in all 
respects new to me. Shetland, treeless and bare, covered 
for the most part with morasses, and abounding in inac- 
cessible cliffs, is enveloped, even in summer, by frequent 
fogs, and rarely enjoys an entire day of sunshine ; in win- 
ter, on the other hand, it boasts of a climate as mild as 



CHRISTIANA — CLIMATE. 



5 



that of Avignon, and little colder in the month of January 
than Florence, which is 17° farther south — its capital little 
better than a fishing village with one street, which a car- 
riage, (did carriages exist) could with difficulty traverse. 
But here, on the same parallel, and only 12° of longitude 
farther east, we see the Aggershuus Amt, in which 
Christiania is placed, verdant with superabundant forests, 
not only of spruce and pine, but with nearly all the ordi- 
nary trees of an English demesne — the plane and sycamore, 
the ash and elm, and even (though more rarely), the beech 
and oak, growing to a full stature and luxuriant in foliage, 
besides all common kinds of fruit-trees and flowering 
shrubs, such as lilac, which yield in luxuriance and colour 
to none in England. Then, during summer, a sky for weeks 
together unclouded, with a temperature often oppressive, 
and in winter, a clear and constant cold, unfelt in any 
part of Britain, and sometimes approaching that of Bussia. 
We here find, also, a city of at least forty thousand in- 
habitants,! with wide and rectangularly built streets (un- 
fortunately, however, with a pavement no way superior to 
that of Kirkwall, and far inferior to that of Lerwick) ; 
a seat of government, with a royal palace, which, if its 
architecture is no ornament to the town, is of a size quite 
equal to the occasion 5 the Storthing hall, or house of Com- 
mons ; a great and flourishing university, with excellent 
museums, library, and astronomical and magnetical obser- 
vatories attached to it, and reckoning amongst its professors 
many of the highest merit, and several of a European repu- 

* Apples, cherries, and even pears and apricots, ripen in the open air. 

f The population was 33,000 in 1835, having been only 10,000 in 
1815, a sudden increase due, no doubt, to political circumstances. I have 
supposed 40,000 to be a moderate estimate of its present amount. 



6 



CHEISTIANIA TO DOVRE-FIELD. 



tation; a respectable port and mercantile quarter, with 
extensive wooden warehouses built into the sea, according 
to the Norwegian custom ; and in whatever direction we 
choose to walk from the town, we meet with cultivation 
or with shelter, with woodland scenery, or with green 
fields or country seats agreeably distributed upon nearly 
every high ground overlooking the fiord. 

These peculiarities and these contrasts are due to con- 
ditions of climate and situation now tolerably well under- 
stood, yet far too striking not to create a pleasing surprise, 
even when the causes are known, and the results antici- 
pated. The existence of such intelligent, wealthy, and 
polished societies as characterize the Norwegian cities of 
Christiania and Bergen on the 60th degree, and Throndhjem, 
nearly on the 64th, indicate a concurrence of circumstances 
favourable to civilization, which are not to be found at the 
same distance from the equator in any part of the globe. 
They are striking consequences of those laws of physical 
geography which produce many of the phenomena purely 
natural, which it is our object in this work to illustrate and 
explain. 

After a short stay in the pleasant and intellectual 
society which Christiania affords, I proceeded, along with 
two English friends with whom I crossed the North Sea, 
by the usual route to Throndhjem, and also by the usual 
Norwegian conveyance, the Kariole, or as it is usually 
written by Englishmen, carriole. This is a sort of gig 
with room for only a single passenger, and devoid (usually) 
of springs. Their place is in some measure supplied by 
long elastic wooden shafts, supported behind on the axle- 
tree, and in front on a small saddle, the animal being har- 
nessed exceedingly far forward, whilst the seat is also 



TEA YELLING IN NORWAY. 



7 



advanced considerably, so as to give the traveller the benefit 
of the elasticity of the shafts. The horse has therefore a 
considerable portion of the direct weight of his burden 
pressing on his shoulders ; for the small board behind, on 
which the luggage is strapped, is so nearly above the axle as 
to afford a very trifling counterpoise. All this is sufficiently 
contrary to our ideas, and the mode of attachment of the 
shafts to the harness appears equally faulty. All that can 
be said is, that the Norwegian ponies know what they have 
to do, and usually do their work well. The traveller 
stretches out his feet right in front of him, into a narrow 
trough prepared to receive them, beyond which is a splash 
board, to which is attached a leather apron, and he is so 
closely fitted into his vehicle all round, that the rain does 
not easily insinuate itself. In addition to top-coats, an 
umbrella may very well be used in driving, except when 
the wind is high or the horse vicious, though I am aware 
that that useful implement is often ridiculed by travellers. 
The horses are changed at every stage (of which the usual 
length is from six to twelve English miles), being furnished 
by the neighbouring peasants, who in rotation are bound to 
supply them. The owner or his boy accompanies the car- 
riage, and usually sits on the top of the traveller's bag or 
portmanteau. To secure horses, it is necessary to send on a 
Forbud-Seddel, or schedule, ordering them to be in readiness 
on a given day and hour. If the traveller disappoints the 
postmaster, either by delay or non-appearance, he is liable 
to a fine. It is most economical to send these schedules a 
day or two before, by the letter post, to the different sta- 
tions on the line of journey ; but those who are making 
their first essay in this novel mode of travelling, do wisely 
not to commit themselves so far before hand. In general 



8 



CHKISTIANIA TO DOVKE-FIELD. 



the traveller may confidently expect civility and honesty 
both from the postmasters and the peasants, even though his 
knowledge of the language (Danish) be trifling. If he cal- 
culate the sums which he is due correctly beforehand, and 
be provided with sufficient change, there is no risk of de- 
tention. 

The journey from Christiania to Throndhjem we accom- 
plished in eight days, on two of which we partly rested, 
and one day was spent on the heights of the Dovre- 
field. The distance is estimated at about 330 English 
miles, but of this about eighty miles are performed by 
steamer on the lakes of Miosen and Losna. In no part of 
the road can the scenery be characterized as reaching the 
pitch of alpine sublimity ; it is, however, tolerably charac- 
teristic of the Norwegian style, and in some places, may 
be called grand. Such are the entrance of Gulbrandsdal, 
between Lillehammer and Moshuus, the pass between 
Laurgaard and Haugen, and the descent of the Driva from 
Kohgsvold to Drivstuen. These are all scenes in valleys 
or ravines, and as such are probably equal to any to be 
found in Great Britain. But we have more striking moun- 
tain scenes in Scotland, than perhaps any which this great 
highway, across one of the most massive mountain chains 
in Norway, presents. But this is, in some degree, charac- 
teristic of the country. The ravine and coast scenery of 
Norway are the most picturesque ; few of its mountain 
ranges, at least south of the arctic circle, present noble out- 
lines. Whilst in other countries the plains and valleys con- 
stitute the greater part of the area, we have here masses of a 
considerable height, in which the valleys and other exca- 
vations form the exception, and are in very many cases 
either troughs or ravines. The eye longs to look out 



MIOSEN LAKE. 



9 



beyond, and to see the commanding summits which in other 
mountainous lands form the boundaries of the valleys, 
and which from time to time are usually exposed to view. 
But in Norway we may travel for days together in hollows 
which command no distant prospects whatever, and may 
be in the immediate neighbourhood of the greatest moun- 
tains in the country, without being aware of it. All this is 
well illustrated on the road from Christiania to Throndhjem, 
which has been so often described by travellers, as to re- 
quire no farther notice here, except in so far as it illustrates 
the physical geography of the great northern peninsula. 

During the greater part of the first day's journey from 
Christiania to the banks of the Miosen Lake, we traverse 
table lands at the very moderate elevation of 600 or 700 
feet,° which have little either of beauty or fertility to 
recommend them, and which will be traversed ere long by 
a railway, the first in Norway, an innovation scarcely to be 
regretted, since the country is not only uninteresting, but 
the road execrable. The Miosen Lake itself fills one of 
those valley-expansions which are so common in Scandi- 
navia, and is here the receptacle of the noble river Lougen 
which has already run a course of about 130 miles before it 
falls into the Miosen at Lillehammer. The scenery of the 
lake has the common fault of want of a background. The 
banks are of tolerably even height, and therefore monoto- 
nous. We miss those lateral vistas through which the eye 
may wander and the fancy speculate, until the receding 
ranges of mountains are confounded with the clouds. In 
other respects it may compare with several of the Swiss 
lakes, and the distribution of wood and pasture, with ranges 



* Trogstad, 590 Ehenish feet. 



10 



CHRISTIANIA TO DOVRE-FIELD. 



of log-houses amidst the openings in the forests of fir, at a 
height of several hundred feet above the bank, has very 
much of the Swiss character. At the head of the lake is 
the thriving village of Lillehammer, where we disembarked 
and resumed our carrioles, commencing the long traverse 
of the valley of Gulbrandsdal. The lake of Losna, some 20 
miles farther up the course of the Lougen, has a decidedly 
more alpine character than the Miosen. The banks are 
steeper, and adorned with hanging woods of birch and 
pine ; habitations are rarer, and so narrow is it in most 
places, that the character of lake is repeatedly lost in that 
of river ; and, notwithstanding its width, which, though 
small for a lake, is great for a river, the current is suffi- 
ciently strong to propel in most places the logs of timber 
felled in the upper valley, and which are slowly urged 
onwards by the almost insensible advance of this vast body 
of water. Here a small steamer again assists the traveller 
over a certain part of his route. 

From Elstad, where we leave the lake, the valley of 
Gulbrandsdal extends continuously to the foot of the Dovre- 
field, and the ascent is very gradual, with the exception of 
the picturesque ravine near Laurgaard already referred to. 
But we are in truth in the mountainous region a little 
earlier. The ravine of Kringelen, just beyond the post 
station of Solhjem, and the place of Sinclair's surprise and 
massacre,* is marked by the union of an important tributary 

* Colonel Sinclair commanded, in 1612, a body of troops raised in Scotland 
for the service of Sweden, under Gustavus Adolphus. To avoid being cut off 
by the Danes, who then occupied the greater part of Norway, Sinclair landed 
his troops, 900 strong, at Eomsdal, and marched across the country. But the 
peasantry, warned of their approach, laid an ambush in the defile of Krin- 
gelen, similar to that recorded in the Tyrolese war of independence. The 



GULBRAXDSDAL. 



11 



on the right bank of the Lougen, the Otta Elv, which forms 
higher up a lake of great length called the Otta Vand, and 
one origin of which may be traced to within not many miles 
of the waters of the Western Ocean in the Lyster-fiord, and 
to the very highest mountain summits in Norway, the 
Ymes-field. The other great branch which our road pur- 
sues rises a little to the west of Sneehattan, on the Dovre- 
field, so that this important river drains by far the greater 
part of the greatest mountain basin in the peninsula ; and 
as this basin is inclosed for a wide extent by mountains 
covered with perpetual snow, the Lougen naturally attains 
its highest level, like the Ehine or the Aar, in the middle 
of summer, when the melting of the snows is most 
active. 

At the Church of Sel, or Sfel, which is just beyond the 
partition of the streams just mentioned, we are only 1170 
feet above the sea, the ascent having been so far gradual ; 
but the rapid ascent to Haugen brings us into a valley of a 
different character, purely pastoral, and resembling alpine 
valleys from 5000 to 6000 feet above the sea. Yet at the 
Church of Dovre (a singular and ugly structure, covered, 
roof and sides, With enormous flags of clay-slate) the river 
Lougen has a height of only 1500 feet, being 500 feet higher 
than at the bridge of Laurgaard; but the road at the 
intermediate pass of Rustenberg has attained the height of 
1800 feet, and on the 2d of July snow-patches appeared on 
the shaded slopes to the left in almost startling proximity. 

invading army were overwhelmed with an artificial avalanche from the 
heights, of rocks and missiles, and are said to have been cut off nearly to a 
man. We saw a stone marking the spot where Sinclair fell, and some not 
uninteresting relicts of the fight in a neighbouring cottage. 



12 



CHRISTIAN IA TO DOVB.E-FIELD. 



From Tofte, which is the next stage, some snow-capped 
summits may be seen in different directions, but none of 
any great magnitude or boldness of form. But in reality we 
are now surrounded by the lofty heights of the Dovre and 
adjacent chains, having left far behind us on the right the 
lofty but isolated group of the Rundane mountains, and on 
the left, though at a greater distance, the great snow-covered 
hills of Lorn, though both are quite unperceived from the 
deep valley of the Lougen. The grandeur of the defile of 
Rustenberg, and the alpine character of the vale of Tofte 
(or Lessoe, as Gulbrandsdal is now called), with the glimpses 
of perpetual snow in both directions of the valley, infused 
for the first time something of an alpine spirit into our 
journey. The cultivation of com — rye, oats, and barley — 
which disappear usually in the order I have just named 
them, and which may all be found in the lower part of 
Gulbrandsdal, had given place to exclusive hay crops, just 
as we see in the upland valleys of Switzerland. 

With the exception of Lillehammer on the Miosen 
Lake, nothing like a village has been passed since we left 
Christiania ; yet Gulbrandsdal is one of the most popu- 
lous and fertile districts in Norway. It is a singular 
peculiarity of the country that villages are almost unknown, 
at least if we except the west coast, where there is a slightly 
greater tendency to concentration. When we look at 
Munch's excellent map, and see it crowded with names, we 
fancy that the country must be populous. But these spots 
so named are single houses, or at most two or three nearly 
connected, where as many families reside, which constitute 
a gaard (pronounced gore), usually occupied by a peasant- 
proprietor who (at least in the remoter districts) takes his 
name from the gaard which he possesses or where he resides, 



SCARCITY OF VILLAGES — 



TOFTE. 



13 



as is common in the Scottish Highlands. This dissemina- 
tion of houses, this absence of villages — an index in some 
degree of the peculiar political condition of the country 
and the universality of landownership — is one of the most 
singular features of Norway. It gives at first a dreary 
interminable aspect to a journey, like that of a book unre- 
lieved by the customary subdivision into chapters, where 
we are at least invited to halt, though we are at liberty to 
proceed. Another feature is the paucity of churches in 
most places, although again in others they seem crowded 
in needless profusion ; the last is a very rare exception, 
but I recollect on the way from Bergen to Christiania 
passing four in a single stage. I think we did not see as 
many in the whole journey by land from the Miosen to the 
Dovre-field. They are almost invariably of the homeliest 
description, trees seem rarely to be purposely planted near 
them, and what is stranger still, they are usually quite 
isolated, or with only the Praestengaard or parsonage in the 
neighbourhood. In almost every other European country, 
the habitations, as a matter of course, cluster round the 
parish church. The absence of this natural and pleasing 
combination is another peculiarity of social manners in 
Norway, and in striking contrast with Switzerland, where 
the village and the village spire offer a continual landmark 
to the traveller in all the more populous valleys. 

The station-house at Tofte is an excellent specimen of 

* Gaard signifies a fence, an enclosure, a country seat. Humboldt (in 
a note to his Kosmos) incidentally mentions how extensively this word and 
its analogues are to be foimd in several tongues ; the Gothic gairdan to 
gird, English garden, German garten, and Sclavonian grad. In Persian 
gerd means a circle and also a castle. 



14 CHRISTIANIA TO DOVRE-FIBLD. 

the best class of Norwegian country inns. It resembles 
closely the bouses of entertainment kept by tbe Swiss 
peasants of a superior class at a distance from tbe great 
roads. Here, as there, there is also something of aristo- 
cratic pretension on the part of the peasant-proprietors. 
As we find in the Valais ancestral portraits of six or eight 
generations, so in the inn at Tofte we saw several handsome 
pieces of furniture and other heirlooms, and we learned that 
our host claims a descent from Harald Harfager, one of the 
ancient petty kings of Norway. As an instance of the 
simplicity of communication, I may mention that at this 
principal inn, on tbe most travelled road in Norway, I 
found it impossible to post a letter for Christiania, although 
a well-appointed and rapid post-conveyance passes each 
way twice a week. I was told that at the next station, Lie, 
it might be done ; but I was there again at fault, and bad 
to send a special messenger to some third station with my 
letter, at double or three times .the expense of the whole 
postage to Christiania ! 

At Tofte we slept on the third night of our journey, the 
two first having been passed respectively in the steam- 
boats on the lakes of Miosen and Losna. We spent the 
morning at Tofte, our carrioles already requiring some 
repairs, and the day's journey to Jerkind being short. 
From Lie, the ascent of the Dovre-field begins in good 
earnest, but we had so gradually attained a height of above 
2000 feet, that the ascent disappointed me. The valley of 
Lessoe (which we here quit) continues a tolerably level 
course towards the north-west, and is traversed by the high 
road to Molde, through Romsdal. The Lessoe Vand, a 
lake at the summit level, is only 2000 feet above the sea, 



ASCENT OF THE DOVRE-FIELD. 



15 



and is remarkable in this respect, that a stream issues from 
each end of it, the one communicating with the waters of 
Gulbrandsdal, the other with the North Sea, at Molde. 
And such seems also to be the case with the Otta Elv, the 
other great branch of the Lougen already referred to, which 
receives water from the Breiddals Vand, from which a stream 
likewise runs into the Stor-fiord, on the west coast. On the 
whole, the Lessoedal, above Tofte, is the most remarkable 
indentation in a mountain range to be observed anywhere 
in Norway. It affords a direct and easy communication 
from the heart of the peninsula to the North Sea, eluding, 
as it were, the lofty mountains which it divides — surrounded 
in all directions with perpetual snows, yet not itself rising 
to the upper limit of the pine. At Lie we parted with 
regret with a young Norwegian on his way to Molde, 
through Eomsdal, who spoke English, and whom we met 
on board the steamer. With the customary politeness of 
his countrymen, he assisted us in making out our forbud 
papers thus far, and in making all arrangements on the 
journey. On board the same steamer I was addressed by a 
gentleman from the west of Norway, entirely unknown to 
me, who, after some conversation, invited me to visit him 
there, and gave me useful local information. I afterwards 
experienced the full benefit of his hospitality. 

As we ascended the Dovre-field to Fogstuen, we were 
interested in observing the well-defined limits of growth, 
first of the spruce, then of the pine, and finally of the 
birch. The hills here are very generally wooded up to 
the height where these several trees can grow. At the 
limit of the Scotch fir, the aneroid barometer belonging 
to one of my companions stood at 27.11 — the tempera- 
ture of the air was at 53°. This may correspond to 



1G 



CHRISTIANIA TO DOVRE-FIELD. 



about 2870 English feet above the sea.* I estimated 
that the common birch reached a height 400 feet 
greater."!" We touched granite in situ before reaching 
Fogstuen, which, however, occupies but a limited space. 
The view of the Dovre-field or plateau is dreary enough 
from hence, even in fine weather 5 in winter, or during 
storms, it must be wild indeed. It is a table-land of an 
average height of 3000 feet or rather more above the sea, 
from which rise mountains, attaining, in the case of Snee- 
hattan, and possibly one or two others, an elevation of 
above 7000 feet 5 but the greater part are far inferior to this, 
and of such rounded forms, and spread over such wide 
surfaces, as to produce less picturesque effect than any 
mountain chain of the same magnitude with which I am 
acquainted. Even Sneehattan is not a commanding object, 
and the table-land rises so gradually to the level of its im- 
mediate base, that the eye is singularly deceived as to its 
real distance, and consequently its real elevation, both of 
which are greatly underrated. The facility with which 
the Dovre-field is gained would alone diminish its effect if 
it had any ; but being entirely devoid of the character of a 
barrier, and consisting of undulating surfaces of hundreds of 
miles in extent, and rarely attaining the snow line, it has a 
character of mediocrity which must disappoint almost every 
traveller. 

The drive from Fogstuen (a single farm-house) to 
Jerkind is nearly level, over the table-land of the Dovre- 
field. It resembles the moorland scenery of some extensive 

* By comparison with observations at Jerkind, of which the height is 
estimated at 3100 English feet. 

■J- The mean of Naumann's and Hisingcr's measures gives 2870 Khenish 
feet (= 2960 English) for the pine, and 3350 for the birch. 



DOVRE-FIELD— JERKIND. 17 

wastes in the Highlands of Scotland. The inequalities of 
the surface are filled with swamps and wild tarns ; the 
drier spots are interspersed with stunted brushwood. One 
lake of moderate size is skirted by the road for a consider- 
able distance : it has almost a picturesque character, from 
an occasional cliff of overhanging rock, which is here 
hornblendic slate or gneiss, with occasional tangled birch. 
The level grounds are nearly covered by rocky debris, but 
I did not observe angular blocks of any unusual size : 
tameness of outline is the prevailing characteristic. After 
passing two lakes, whose waters run eastwards into the 
Glommen — the greatest river in Norway — the road rather 
descends for a considerable distance. At length the station 
of Jerkind comes in sight, towards which the road rises 
rapidly. Here better pasture appears, and the surface 
assumes a greener and less inhospitable appearance. The 
station is, however, in a very exposed position on the last 
ascent of the Dovre-field, and at a height not inferior to 
that of Fogstuen, or at about 3100 English feet above the 
sea. It is a substantial farm-house, with appendages, and 
has long been possessed by persons of substance. In order 
to accommodate travellers who very frequently pass the 
night here, a separate building has been erected on the 
opposite side of the road for their occupancy. There are 
not, however, more than five beds, and we found the 
management of the house less good than we expected from 
the high character it has usually borne. I am afraid some- 
thing is to be attributed here, as elsewhere, to the recent 
influx of English visitors who usually pass the night at 
Jerkind, and sometimes remain for a time in pursuit of 
game. We preferred in this respect some of the inns on 
the road less known, and offering homelier accommodation. 

c 



18 



CHRISTIANIA TO DOVRE-FIELD. 



Nor can I let this opportunity pass of expressing strongly a 
hope, felt by all I believe who have travelled in Norway, 
that our countrymen will take a lesson from the effects 
visible on the continental thoroughfares, of too frequent 
instances of English selfishness, arrogance, and belief in 
the unlimited powers of gold ; and that they will display 
in this comparatively new country a degree of considerate 
moderation in their expectations and their actions, which 
may preserve to Great Britain the prestige of attachment 
and regard commonly found amongst all ranks of this 
free, intelligent, and fine-hearted people. 

We prepared for the ascent of Sneehattan on the fol- 
lowing day, which was the 4th July. 



CHAPTER II. 



SNEEHiETTAN— DOVRE-FIELD TO THRONDHJEM 
(DRONTHEIM). 

ROUTE FROM JERKIND TO SNEEHiETTAN — THE ASCENT— HEIGHT OF SNEEH3DTTAN — THE 
VIEW FROM THE TOP— RETURN TO JERKIND— KONGSVOLD— THE VAARSTIGE — ACTION 
OF GLACIERS— MAINTENANCE OF THE ROADS IN NORWAY— TRAVELLING IN SPRING— 
DRIVSTUEN — AAMOSELV — GEOLOGY OF THE DOVRE-FIELD ACCORDING TO NAUMANN— 
THE RIVERS OERKEL AND GUUL — THRONDHJEM. 

The distance of the base of Sneehattan from Jerkind is 
reckoned at two Norwegian, or 14 English miles. The 
country traversed is characteristic of the Norwegian fields 
— nearly trackless ; the traveller, or rather his sagacious 
pony, must explore his way through swamp and heather — 
amongst holes and accumulations of loose stones, most 
dangerous for a horse — across rapid streams, nearly ice- 
cold ; and, worst of all, over numerous and wide patches of 
still unmelted snow, treacherous even for the foot of man, 
and in which our ponies floundered up to the saddles. 
There was little of picturesque interest to redeem the toil 
of this scramble of four hours' duration. Sneehattan itself 
was the only object at all remarkable in outline, and it 
rose before us in a manner so gradual, that it seemed as if 
we should never reach it. 

The changing aspect of the scanty vegetation of this 



20 



DOVKE-FIELD TO THRCXNDHJEM. 



wilderness was the chief evidence that we were really 
ascending. Soon after leaving Jerkind, the common or 
white birch is left behind; then willows, more or less 
stunted, succeed, with juniper. Both these plants cease 
together, and the creeping dwarf birch, a very pretty spread- 
ing undergrowth, scarcely six inches high, with reindeer 
moss, are nearly the only generally spread plants ; but we 
saw the ranunculus glacialis in flower. At length, even these 
scanty traces of life almost disappeared, and tracks of loose 
shingle freshly uncovered by snow, and steeped in cold 
moisture, afforded a slippery and uncertain footing to the 
weary horses. The beds of snow having become so frequent 
as nearly to cover the plain, we left our horses in charge of 
a boy, on a space covered with slaty debris, and trickling 
with melting snow, affording a most comfortless bivouac. 
The level here appeared by the aneroid barometer to be 
about 1900 English feet above Jerkind, or almost exactly 
5000 above the sea. It gives a correct idea of the flatness 
of the field, that we had only crept up these 1900 feet in the 
course of a ride probably not overrated at 14 miles. 

We proceeded on foot with our elder guide to the ascent 
of the mountain, which rises with sudden steepness from 
near the point where we left our horses. At this still early 
period of summer it was covered with snow, except where 
the winds had drifted it from the blocks of mica slate which 
strew its slopes. It was now noon, and the heat of the sun 
(though not very great), had softened the snow, through 
which we struggled with great fatigue — often sinking quite 
to the waist — until we gained the firmer slopes. The ascent 
was both disagreeable and dangerous, the foot sinking at 
every step amongst the interstices of the blocks already 
mentioned, threatening dislocation or broken bones. After 



SNEEHATTAN. 



21 



a tedious and fatiguing scramble, we gained harder footing 
as we approached the summit, where the walking was 
comparatively easy ; but the wind, from which we had 
been sheltered by the mountain during the ascent, blew 
chilly in our faces, and rendered it impossible to remain for 
any time exposed to it when we reached the top, which 
was about three o'clock. We then saw clearly that the 
form of the mountain is a ridge running nearly east and 
west, precipitously broken towards the south, and sloping 
steeply in other directions. The chasm on the south has 
been compared to a crater — the mountain ridge bending 
partly round it like the cliffs of Monte Sonrma, with which 
in steepness it may compare ; whilst the elevation is much 
greater. It has been stated that a lake exists in the 
hollow, but at this time it was no doubt frozen, and con- 
cealed by beds of snow ; and, according to M. Durocher, 
a small glacier is lodged under the cliffs of Sneehattan. 
This also was of course concealed by the abundance of the 
remaining snow. The ridge itself is wildly serrated, and, 
like the entire mountain, is composed of a rather friable 
mica slate. The part on which we stood was a cone 
of pure snow, cleft vertically on the side of the precipice ; 
one point a little to the westward appeared to be a few 
feet higher, and to this one of our party proceeded, by 
making a considerable circuit, whilst 1 in vain attempted 
to inflame a spirit of wine furnace for taking the tempera- 
ture of boiling water, for the wind blew rather strongly 
from the west, and felt bitterly cold — the temperature being 
34°. The aneroid barometer stood at 22.53 inches. The 
cold compelled us soon to quit our position, but not until 



* Annales des Mines, 3d ser. torn. xii. 



22 



DOVRE-FIELD TO THRONDHJEM. 



we had carefully surveyed the panorama of mountains, 
which for the most part were fortunately still clear, 
although the gathering clouds towards the north betokened 
a change of weather, which soon followed. 

Sneehattan, for a very long period considered to be the 
highest mountain in Norway, attains, according to the best 
observations, a height of about 7400 Rhenish or 7620 
English feet above the sea.* Our observations give a height 
of 2600 English feet above the station at the foot, or 4500 
above Jerkind, and 7600 above the remarkable 
coincidence, considering the somewhat unfavourable cir- 
cumstances in which the observations were made, and that 
the thermometric correction of the instrument itself is not 
taken into account.f It was first ascended in the last years 
of the 18th century, by Professor Esmark, who estimated 
its height about 500 feet too great. Not many years after, 
it was ascended by Sir Thomas Acland. Though exceeded 
by a few hundred feet by the Store Galdhopiggen, belong- 
ing to the Ymes-field, in the direction of the Sogne-fiord, 
the difference is not sufficient to give a commanding ap- 
pearance to that range. Some of the forms are however 
picturesque, especially the striking summits of the Bundane 

* Gsea Norvegica, p. 192. 

f The aneroid barometer in question, which belonged to one of my com- 
panions, had had its scale scrupulously verified in London. These instru- 
ments may, with ordinary care, be transported anywhere, even in carrioles or 
carts, as they are easily suspended from the shoulder. As there was one 
instrument in company, I had sent mine by sea to Bergen for fear of acci- 
dents. It is by no means impossible, however, to transport instruments 
even of some delicacy in a carriole, with due precaution, especially in driving 
down hill. The safest part of the carriage is, of course, the foot or splash 
board. The aneroid barometer is unquestionably the most valuable aid of 
its kind to the promotion of Physical Geography invented for many years. 



VIEW FROM SNEEHATTAN. 



23 



or Eondene mountains, to the south-east, which approach 
7000 feet, and the extensive snow-fields, to the south, con- 
nected with the mountains of Lorn and the Ymes-field. I 
believe that I saw distinctly the Store Galdhopiggen, and 
the Glittertind, although the great distance, and the number 
of other ranges not much its inferior in height, diminish 
greatly the picturesque effect. Of course from this elevation 
the plateau of the Dovre-field is seen in all its vastness and 
desolation. As we are unable to see to the bottom of any 
of the valleys, the eye can only range from its level to that 
of the summits beyond. This again contributes to lessen 
the apparent height of the mountains. The ridge to which 
Sneehattan belongs runs east and west for a considerable 
extent. It is well seen from Fogstuen as has been stated, 
and the impression I then had, that the mountain imme- 
diately to the westward called Skreahog, is little inferior 
in height to Sneehattan, is confirmed by what I find in 
Naumann's Journal — that geologist having partially ex- 
plored the almost untrodden wilderness in that direction, 
where the level of the table-land of Dovre is higher than 
in any other part, and several summits belonging to the 
same chain are, in the estimation of that writer, not more 
than 500 or 600 feet lower than Sneehattan. 

Our descent, though much less fatiguing than the 
ascent, required the greatest precaution to avoid serious 
injury to our legs amongst the stones and snow. We all 
reached the horses in safety, and returned by nearly the 
same track. The principal torrent to be crossed, which is 
in fact no other than the source of the river Driva (which 
we were to follow for a long way on our next day's journey), 

* Beitrage zur Kenntniss Norwegens, ii. 278. 



24 



DOVRE-FIELD TO THRONDHJEM. 



was deeper than in the morning. To cross these streams 
without horses would be a very serious undertaking. Near 
this ford was almost the only spot presenting any verdure 
or shelter on the whole route. It was a little plain close 
by the stream, where it issued through a narrow defile of 
rock, and skirted a rising ground, which broke the sweep of 
the westerly wind. Here was a sort of meadow ; green, and 
also slightly protected by some stunted willows. On this 
meadow a few horses grazed, and, as we understood, the 
summer abode of a hunter who spends his time amongst 
the wildest recesses of the Dovre-field was at no great 
distance. But wet, cold, and weary as we were, we felt 
little disposed to seek him. That such a spot should be 
worthy of mention may give an idea of the unvarying 
sterility of the field. 

I looked with attention for any traces of the action 
of glaciers, either by wearing and polishing the rocks 
where they came into view, or in the depositation of 
moraines, but I saw nothing very decisive of either kind. 
The friable and slaty rock is not favourable to the pre- 
servation of impressions of the former class, which are 
rare and ill-defined ; nor are the mounds of stones, which 
are abundant enough, sufficiently characteristic to deserve 
the appellation of moraines. They are indeed some- 
times disposed in elongated flat-topped ridges ; but this 
is due, if I mistake not, to the eroding action of torrents 
which have gradually undermined them, leaving abrupt 
talus, which at first sight resemble moraines, but which in 
their present form it is difficult or impossible to identify. 
The surprise which I at first felt at observing no more 
distinct traces of ancient glaciers diminished afterwards, 
upon reflection that had such glaciers existed, they must 



QUESTIONABLE TEACES OF GLACIERS. 



25 



have covered contemporaneously the whole of the vast 
extent of the Dovre-field 5 — that if they could have moved 
over such inconsiderable slopes, the motion must have been 
nearly insensible ; — that the traces of such ancient ice 
formations (if they existed), must be sought in the deep 
valleys or outlets of the field, where true glaciers must 
have protruded themselves from under the snow-line, with 
a considerable declivity ; — and finally, that any change of 
climate tending to contract the limits of permanent snow 
and ice, must have acted with simultaneous energy over the 
greater part of the vast plateau, which maintains a nearly 
uniform level of between 3000 and 4000 feet, which, in the 
colder conditions of climate assumed, must have been 
entirely above the snow-line, and after even a moderate re- 
laxation of the rigour of the climate, entirely below it. 
Supposing such a change to have occurred at all suddenly, 
the overwhelming torrents of water to which it must have 
given rise would more than suffice to annihilate any definite 
constructions of moraines. At all events, I repeat, that 
the absence of great travelled blocks, angular or otherwise, 
on these extensive uplands, is an important physical pecu- 
liarity. The blocks on Sneehattan do not come under 
this description, being, though detached, evidently in situ. 
These have been referred to as singular and anomalous. 
They frequently accompany, however, the spontaneous de- 
composition of rocks of the granitic family, of which the 
Cairngorm hills in Aberdeenshire afford a good example, 
the blocks on Ben Macdhui being much more striking than 
those of Sneehattan. 

I may here add, that the ascent of this mountain (now 
no longer the first of its class), appeared to me to be scarcely 
worth the weariness and monotony of the excursion : and 



26 DOVRE-FIELD TO THKONDHJEM. 

to persons not especially interested in physical geography 
it is still less to be recommended. The presence of bad 
weather could alone have made it more disagreeable. The 
snow was in the worst possible state. I suppose that to- 
wards the end of summer, when it has retired to its farthest 
limits, or in a calm morning after a sharp frost, the ascent 
might be better worth undertaking. 

On our return to Jerkind, we supped on reindeer soup, 
which we found excellent. The following morning we 
crossed the summit level of the pass, which, is about 4100 
English feet, but has not been very accurately determined. 
It is, I believe, the highest carriage road in the north of 
Europe. We had reason to congratulate ourselves upon 
having seen so well from Sneehattan the panorama of the 
greatest mountain masses of Scandinavia, for the hills were 
covered with mist. We soon after joined the Driva in an 
upland valley of the usual sterile character of the field ; 
but the scenery improved in interest as we descended the 
defile through which the torrent dashes, and reached 
Kongsvold, where a tolerable inn and its dependencies are 
placed — a welcome shelter to a traveller on such a road. 
The stage from Kongsvold to Drivstuen has been so often 
described, both for its picturesque grandeur and on account 
of the excessive acclivity of the road, that such details 
seem unnecessary. I must, however, state that such 
scooping and polishing of the rocks as is usually ascribed 
to the action of glaciers, occurs near the highest point of 
the road on this stage, a place called Vaarstige, and which 
is so remarkable that no traveller having passed it is likely 
to forget it. For here the valley — which, from the en- 
trance of the defile specified above, had been narrow and 
rugged enough, offering only a little enlargement at Kongs- 



VAAKSTIGE— GLACIEE MARKINGS. 



27 



void — suddenly contracts to such a degree as nearly to bar 
the passage; the torrent tumbles headlong down a rocky 
chasm, and a great elbow of rock presents a nearly inac- 
cessible face towards the stream, of immense height, over 
which the road is carried, so that in the course of a few 
furlongs we reascend until we are considerably above the 
common level of the Dovre-field at Jerkind, which we 
quitted some hours before. 

The height of the road must be about nine hundred 
English feet above the torrent. Now precisely here we find 
the (so called) glacier markings perfectly developed, follow- 
ing the direction of the ravine, and similar to those seen in 
the rocky contraction of alpine valleys ; and, indeed, under 
similar circumstances in every country in Europe. The 
explanation of their appearance here is sufficiently obvious 
on the glacier theory. The mass of ice which must have 
descended this valley, if the Dovre-field was ever included 
within the snow -line, must have formed one principal outlet 
of the icy superfluity of that prodigious reservoir. And as 
it must have accumulated behind the rocky elbow of the 
Vaarstige in the same manner that a great and sudden flood 
of water would do now, until the superincumbent pressure 
of thawing ice was sufficient to force it past so tremendous 
an obstacle, it is self-evident that the rocky obstacle must 
have resisted that pressure, and borne the traces of it in 
that peculiar erosion which those moving semi-rigid masses 
of ice are known to impress (through the medium of the 
fragments and particles of pulverized rock which they 
invariably carry on their lower surface) upon the barriers 
which oppose their progress. Thus far the appearances 

* Vaarstige, 3150 Eh. feet; Kongsvold, 2846; Jerkind, 2907; Drivstuen, 
2157. — Naumann. 



28 



DOVKE-FIELD TO THEONDHJEM. 



may be accurately explained. Perhaps it may be matter 
for surprise that they are not more universal and obvious 
even in this valley, where (by analogy) it is almost impos- 
sible to doubt that glaciers have once descended. Some 
general reasons might be assigned, but I will only mention 
one here; and this is the very remarkable rapidity of 
disintegration of the most solid rocks perpetually going on 
in Norway, which has evidently the tendency to oblite- 
rate all superficial impressions. Prodigious falls of blocks 
detached from mountain precipices occur every year, and 
by the freshness of their colour are palpable to the passer- 
by. Their frequency is very striking compared with the 
Swiss valleys. It is attributable, I suppose, partly to the 
severity of congelation in winter, but especially to the great 
quantity of snow and rain which falls over a great part of 
the mountainous regions of Norway. This occurrence, 
known in Norway under the name of Bergrap, is correctly 
described and accounted for by Pontoppidan, who cites 
some very striking instances of devastation occasioned by 
it in the diocese of Bergen.* 

Having mentioned the extreme rapidity of the ascent 
and descent on the pass of the Vaarstige, which is remarked 
by all travellers, I may observe that this regardlessness of 
gradients (as it is the fashion now to call them) is common 
all over Norway, and in description gives rise to the idea 
that the roads are in worse condition and more dangerous 
for travelling than is really the case. In such situations as 
the one now described, they are almost inevitable, unless a 
roadway is to be excavated by sheer force of blasting out 
of the solid rock, and such a road is now surveyed and in 



Natural History of Norway, i. 60. 



MAINTENANCE OF ROADS IN NORWAY. 



29 



the fair way of execution. In a great many other cases the 
steep hills might most easily be avoided, and arise from the 
natural process of road-making in a poor country, which is 
to improve footpaths into bridle-roads, and these into post- 
roads. The expense of any alteration of a line is a very 
heavy one compared to its maintenance, and is defrayed 
(I believe) by a special vote of the Storthing, whilst the 
latter (the maintenance) is performed by the compulsory 
labours of the adjacent proprietors — every road in Norway 
having its length subdivided into countless small portions, 
sometimes only a few yards in extent, and denoted by posts 
supporting small painted boards which indicate the name 
of the property liable for the maintenance of the highway, 
and the number of ells (aim) which corresponds to it. 
Under such circumstances, it is only surprising that the 
roads are so generally good and uniformly kept. Excep- 
tions of course occur, arising chiefly either from heavy 
traffic, or from dearth of suitable material. Natural gravel 
abounds in most parts of Norway, and is usually employed 
to mend the roads ; but in clayey or sandy soils the state 
of the highways is bad even at the best season, and after 
bad weather it is of course still worse. " Macadamising" is 
unknown. The sort of attempts towards it, at either end of 
this great highway — that is to say, within a few English 
miles of the modern and ancient capitals of Norway, Chris- 
tiania and Throndhjem — make the over-jolted traveller wish 
that it had never been thought of. As a general rule, how- 
ever, I repeat that this and other great roads are, on the 
whole, excellently kept. By degrees the engineering of the 
highways is being improved. Nowhere, for instance, are 
natural difficulties better overcome than on some parts of 
the great road from Christiania to Bergen across the Fille- 



30 



DOVEE-FIELD TO THRONDH.JEM. 



field. The climate, as well as the uneven surface of the 
entire country, presents great difficulties in the perfect 
maintenance of roads. The disruptive power of frost in 
winter, and the impetuosity of the torrents and avalanches 
in spring, are formidable agents of degradation and decay. 

No language can adequately paint the discomforts of 
a journey in Norway, when the melting of the snow has 
fairly commenced. Von Buch, who travelled the very road 
we are describing in the months of April and May, gives 
us some idea of it in his admirable journal. The roads 
have not snow enough for sledges, but too much for 
carrioles ; they are in fact snow pits too narrow for the 
wheels of a carriage, and retaining streams or pools of ice- 
cold water. In some places where the snow is deeper, yet 
incapable of bearing the weight of a horse, he plunges to 
the girths or deeper, and stands trembling and helpless 
until assisted to extricate himself; and now the traveller, 
driven to his own resources, advances on foot, plunging first 
one leg through, then the other, or both at once, finds 
himself astride upon the snow with both feet dangling, 
immersed in running water beneath. The pass of the 
valley of the Driva, which has led us into this digression, 
is not only disagreeable but most dangerous in spring-time. 
In summer, as we have seen, a safe but most fatiguing 
road must be climbed high over the out-jutting rocks. In 
winter the way is easier, for then the sledge may be securely 
driven on the snow over the course of the torrent down the 
hollow of the valley all the way ; but in spring the former 
course is not open, and the footing on the latter is not 
secure. The buried waters are aroused from their winter's 



* See Von Buch's Travels (in German) i. 149, 193. 




VAARSTIC E 



DOVR E - F I E LD 



DR1VSTUEN — SCENERY. 



31 



repose ; the crust of ice and snow becomes thin and unsafe ; 
the horse plunges into, and must be withdrawn from, a 
thousand perilous chasms before this most formidable 
passage is accomplished. No one, then, it may be easily 
understood, travels in Norway in the end of April and 
beginning of May, unless compelled by circumstances to 
do so. 

No such difficulties attended our proceedings. I 
walked forward on foot, leaving the carriole to the care of 
the guide, and enjoyed the grandeur of the scenery — the 
best we had seen in Norway, and comparable to the finest 
in the Scottish Highlands, though hardly deserving the 
name of alpine. The outlines are noble, though the scale 
is inferior to that of Swiss scenery. A few of the summits 
rise nearly into peaks, whilst the ravine is bounded, as we 
have already said, by lofty and majestic precipices, fringed 
here and there with birchwood, and interspersed by 
cascades. The form of the mountain opposite to the Vaar- 
stige is particularly fine. In Plate I. a view of the Vaar- 
stige is given, looking back to it from the valley beneath. 
The highest part of the carriage-way is seen on the left 
hand of the sketch, near the upper part, where it passes 
under a cliff strongly marked by glacial action. The 
descent towards Drivstuen, if not quite so rapid as the 
ascent from the side of Kongsvold, is longer, and more 
diversified; the road rises and falls many times amongst 
the half-rounded summits of abraded rock. New views 
of the ravine and of the lower valley of the Driva are 
obtained, and the birchwood becomes at each stage of the 
descent more and more beautiful. We are still far above 
the limit of the pine. At length we regain the level of the 
stream ; the valley opens for a time ; it also acquires a habit- 



32 



DOVRE-FIELD TO THRONDHJEM. 



able and cheerful aspect ; and the little hamlet of Drivstuen 
is agreeably situated on a sunny spot amidst productive 
meadows, though overhung on both sides with lofty and 
precipitous mountains. The space in front of the inn, and 
the inn itself, were crowded with peasants — the occa- 
sion being, as we understood, letting the contracts for the 
improvement of the line of road which we had just tra- 
versed. We had here consequently a good opportunity of 
observing the characteristics of the male inhabitants of this 
district of Norway. The opinion of a passing traveller igno- 
rant of the language, is perhaps hardly worth stating ; but 
having some faith in physiognomy, I will venture to record 
my impression at the time, that I had never, in any 
country, seen so fine a peasantry, in point both of general 
appearance and of expression, as on this journey, and more 
particularly on the north descent of the Dovre. The 
younger men are tall and muscular, and their deportment 
unites manliness with gentleness in a remarkable degree. 
As the hair is worn long at all ages, the appearance of the 
aged men is venerable and occasionally highly striking. 
The costume is extremely becoming, being of pale brown 
home-manufactured woollen cloth, slightly embroidered in 
green, with a belt, curiously jointed, of leather and brass, 
from which hangs a knife (also made in the rural districts) 
with a carved handle, which is used in eating. A hanging- 
red woollen cap completes the dress. Some travellers 
declaim against the slowness and stupidity of the Nor- 
wegians. Slow they may be as regards the deliberateness 
of their actions, but, so far as the experience of this journey 
extends, I should describe them as, in general, more than 
commonly intelligent and courteous. 

Drivstuen is the last of the Fieldstuer or houses 



GEOLOGY OP THE DOVRE-FIELI). 



83 



of refuge on this formidable pass — formidable I mean in 
winter or in bad weather, by reason of the great width of 
its table-land, and the absolute want of natural shelter. 
These stations are said to have been founded by King 
Egstein in 1120,° and are four in number, Fogstuen, Jer- 
kind, Kongsvold, and Drivstuen. 

Shortly below Drivs,tuen the Scotch fir makes its 
appearance, and on the same stage a very remarkable red 
porphyritic gneiss may be seen in situ, and also in im- 
mense blocks, which appear to have been discharged from 
the valley of the Aamoselv, a river which unites with the 
Driva some miles below Drivstuen, and which takes its 
rise immediately to the westward of Sneehattan. If the 
geological sketch of Naumann may be trusted, this remark- 
able gneiss belongs to a narrow belt which encircles the 
highest mountain group of the Dovre, from which, as from 
a centre, this mantel-formed stratification dips outwards, 
including, where most developed, the following members : — 
1. and lowest, the friable mica slate of Sneehattan, for- 
merly described ; 2. quartz slate ; 3. the beautiful porphy- 
ritic gneiss now under notice; 4. (on the east side) mica 
slate. What is the real constitution of the central district 
included in this remarkable circular formation, does not 
appear, being left blank in Naumann's map.f It is a pro- 
blem most worthy of solution 5 but, so far as I know, little 
has been done towards it in the last thirty years. I am not 
unaware that Professor Keilhau^: does not admit the cor- 
rectness of Naumann' s scheme of the Dovre formations ; but 
if we may judge from the notice to which I refer, he has 

* Von Bnch, i. 200. 

f This central district lies 12 or 15 English miles N.N.W. from Snee- 
hattan. \ G-Eea Norvegica, p. 404, published in 1850. 

D 



34 



DOVKE-EIELD TO T HRODHJEM. 



not made so extensive personal observations, and has pro- 
posed no other hypothesis of arrangement and super -posi- 
tion. In a case like this, a fundamental hypothesis, or 
construction of the facts, even if in some degree, or mainly 
false, is better than no hypothesis at all. It is a ground- 
work for improved knowledge. A mere catalogue of 
detached data is not such a groundwork until hypotheti- 
cally collected. The wilderness of the Dovre, northwards 
and westwards from Sneehattan, is probably an untrodden, 
yet important field for geological research. 

I have made these observations in connection with the 
porphyritic gneiss of the Drivthal, because it is the most 
characteristic rock of this district, and its occurrence is so 
striking as to be mentioned by every geological traveller. 
Before quitting the topic of geology, I will observe that the 
granite, already mentioned as making its appearance at Fog- 
stuen, appears to be exterior to and independent of Nau- 
mann's great conical elevation of the Dovre-field. It is as it 
were imbedded in clay slate. Another very similar outbreak 
occurs about 20 English miles beyond the porphyritic 
gneiss formation near Drivstucn, on the Throndhjem road. 
I noticed it between Ovne and Stuen, where it appears 
under the form of a hornblendic porphyry, which soon, 
however, passes into a complete granite. Its geological 
relations are the same as those of the granite of Fogstuen, 
being associated with clay slate, and it is nearly equidis- 
tant from the supposed centre of elevation. It is probable 
that this eruption of granite is the cause of the sudden turn 
of the river Driva from a due north to a westerly course, 
which occasions the main post-road to traverse an elevated 
ridge, separating the valleys of the Driva and Oerkel, 
attaining at Stuen a height again little inferior to the 



RIVERS OERKEL AND GUUL. 



35 



limit of the pine ; and the effect of a northerly exposure 
was here evident by the bleak snow patches remaining 
even on the 5th of July, at no very great distance beyond 
that limit. In the course of the evening fresh snow fell, 
though our elevation above the sea was only about 2300 
feet ; the country looked sterile, and almost uninhabited, 
and we felt as if we had made a sudden advance towards 
the north. We were now m 62«| of latitude. 

The valley of the Oerkelelv, which we reached a stage 
beyond Stuen, presents an entire change of scenery. Not 
only the pine, but the spruce fir abounds, or rather the 
latter soon quite supplants the other, clothing the precipi- 
tous banks of a noble river, which is crossed by a bridge 
near Bjerkager, where we are probably only 800 or 900 feet 
above the sea, and surrounded by cultivation, though on a 
scale limited by the narrowness of the valley. But the 
course of the Oerkel conducts not to Throndhjem, but 
to the Oerkedals-fiord, another branch of the great 
Throndhj ems-fiord ; so that another mountain ridge must be 
crossed from the Oerkel to the Guul, but this time to a 
less elevation, and through a more pleasing country — the 
highest station, Garlid, being pleasingly situated amongst 
green fields and woods of spruce, the general tone of the 
scenery vividly recalling that of many parts of Scotland. 
The descent upon the valley of the Guul, near Soknoes, is 
extremely pleasing, and the timber fine, with some good 
cliff scenery, and the river is crossed by a noble bridge in 
a picturesque situation. From thence to Throndhjem, the 
country offers little of interest, until, after the exhaus- 
tion consequent upon jolting over some miles of what may 

* The population of the, parish of Opdal 40 years ago was little more 
than two souls per English scpiare mile. 



36 



DOVKE-FIELD TO THUODHJKM. 



not unfairly be called the worst road in Europe, the tra- 
veller obtains a sudden and delightful prospect of the nor- 
thern and ancient capital of Norway, -charmingly situated 
on the southern bank of the extensive Throndhj ems-fiord, 
which is completely land-locked ; and when we thus unex- 
pectedly look down upon its orderly streets, clean dwell- 
ings, tall warehouses projecting into the bay — upon the 
neat villas amidst trees and fields of the brightest green, 
country and town churches, and especially upon its once 
majestic and still venerable cathedral — it is difficult to 
believe that we are entering one of the most northern capi- 
tals, and one of the least visited towns of Europe, which 
yet possesses evidences of comfort, independence, and self- 
respect amongst the lower classes, and of intelligence, hos- 
pitality, and refinement amongst the upper, which many 
cities of more pretension might well be proud of. 

It does not form part of my plan minutely to describe 
Throndhj em any more than I have the southern capital of 
Norway. The shortness of both my visits to Throndhj em 
would scarcely entitle me to do so. The cathedral, the most 
interesting feature of the town, has been sufficiently de- 
scribed and deservedly praised by every writer. It is built 
chiefly of bluish grey chlorite schist, having some resem- 
blance to potstone, which appears to be easily fashioned 
and to harden on exposure. The tracery of the octagonal 
stone screen surrounding the altar has a peculiar and 
pleasing appearance. But such is the effect of demolition 
and rough casting without, and of whitewash and boarding 
within, that it is only piecemeal, as it were, that we can 
perceive the once imposing effect which it must have had. 
The date of the older part is believed to be 1180, and is in a 
hold Norman style, of which the transepts and vestry are 



THRONDHJEM — CATHEDRAL — TERRACES. 



37 



the best specimens. The architecture has a general resem- 
blance to St. Magnus's Cathedral at Kirkwall. The latter 
is incomparably better preserved, but has a more severe 
and gloomy character. The town of Throndhjem is built 
almost entirely of wood, but the streets are wide, regular, 
and well-kept (though the pavement is rough), and the 
houses are substantial, cheerful, with numerous windows, 
and scrupulously clean. The roofs are very generally of a red 
colour. The shops are like other houses, but with a name 
above the door, and a very moderate supply of goods in the 
windows. Here, as at Christiania, all persons not only 
take off the hat but remain uncovered whilst dealing in a 
shop. Neither in the shops, nor even in the principal inn, 
did I find a single person speaking any language except 
Danish. The latitude of Throndhjem is 63° 26'. 

The objects of interest in the neighbourhood, including 
the Leerfoss, a fine waterfall on the river Nid, are also 
generally known ; and I will only mention, that on this 
excursion my attention was, for the first time in Norway, 
forcibly arrested by the remarkable series of natural levels 
or terraces which stretch at intervals for a great way up 
the coiu*se of the river Nid. Such terraces may be traced 
at intervals along most of the western coast. They are 
concisely but accurately described by that admirable ob- 
server, Leopold von Buch, and in later years particularly, 
have been examined, and their origin discussed, by MM. 
Durocher and Bravais, by Mr. Chambers, and many other 
writers. I offer here no opinion upon the origin of the 
terraces of the Throndhj ems-fiord in particular ; but they are 
amongst the best defined that I have ever seen, and in one 
instance were not unnaturally mistaken by me for military 



38 



DOVKE-FIELD TO THRODHJEM. 



outworks, as a field whicli includes several of them, per- 
fectly grass-grown, is surmounted by a powder magazine. 

Though the oak has all but ceased to grow, and few 
kinds of fruit come to any degree of perfection, the aspect 
of the country is quite the reverse of bleak ; but, on the 
Contrary, cheerful, habitable, and flourishing. Very con- 
siderable farming establishments exist in the neighbour- 
hood, and the love of flowers, so characteristic of Norway 
and its people, is here in the highest perfection. Scarcely 
a house exists in Throndhjem which has not its windows 
literally filled with flowering plants, tended by the owners ; 
and so prevalent is this taste, that on all my subsequent 
journeys in steamboats, we were rarely without packages 
of flowers in pots, undergoing transport from one port 
to another. The view over the fiord is varied and pictur- 
esque. The hills, though not densely wooded, are by no 
means bare, and though I believe some distant hills were 
snow-covered when I saw them, yet probably no elevations 
of 3000 feet are visible from the shore at Throndhjem. 
The character once again resembles that of our Scottish 
Highlands, where the sea so frequently flows into the land 
between the hills, forming inlets which, in proportion to 
the size of the country, are as long and narrow as the 
fiords of Norway. That of Throndhjem extends thirty -five 
English miles before it reaches the ocean to the westward, 
and it runs inland to the north-east at least as far. 



TORGHATTAN. 



CHAPTER III. 



NORDLAND. 

CHARACTER OF NORTHERN NORWAY — LEAVE THRONDHJEM BY STEAMER — VAERS — TORG- 
HATTAN — ITS CATERN — ROCHES MOUTONNEES — YACHTS — THE SEVEN SISTERS — 
(EXTIND— ENTER THE ARCTIC CIRCLE— GLACIERS OF FONDAL — BODO— SCENERY OF 
VEST-FIORD AND THE LOFODDEN ISLANDS— ARRIVAL AT TROMSO. 

Theondhjem is a very natural boundary to a traveller's 
northern tour. In his journey thither he has seen a good 
deal of the interior of Norway, and unless he mean to 
extend his travels quite within the Polar Circle, there is 
little of special interest to entice hini forwards, and no 
definite stopping point Is naturally suggested, where he may 



-to 



NOKULANL). 



gratify his curiosity, and at the same time repose his body 
and relax his mind in hospitable society — all of which con- 
ditions Throndhjem so amply satisfies. Its position too is 
geographically peculiar. It is at the beginning of the 
isthmus of the great Scandinavian peninsula, which is here 
only 250 English miles broad, from Sundsvall on the 
Bothnian Gulf, to the North Sea at the entrance of the 
Throndhj ems-fiord ; and this isthmus continues of nearly 
uniform breadth until we reach Lulea, near the head of 
the Gulf of Bothnia, which is also 250 miles from Bodo, on 
the west coast. The mountains of northern Norway — com- 
monly called the Kjolen range — extend, though not in an 
unbroken chain, from the neighbourhood of Alten, in latitude 
70° (beyond which they rapidly decline), in a S.S.W. direc- 
tion till we reach the parallel of Throndhjem, where they 
attain a height of nearly 6000 English feet at Syl-field, on 
the Swedish frontier. Here the expansion of the peninsula 
becomes apparent, and the mountainous surfaces spreading 
in proportion, form those great table-lands, of which the 
Dovre-field is perhaps the most striking example, still how- 
ever preserving a general parallelism to the western coast, 
which is everywhere nearly in contact with considerable 
hills. The shore of the peninsula north of Throndhjem, 
which belongs to Norway, is both narrow and mountainous. 
It contains therefore a small population, and includes only 
three provinces (Amter), North Throndhjem, Nordland, and 
Finmarken, whilst Southern Norway contains fourteen. It 
is besides nearly destitute of longitudinal valleys, though 
that of the Namsen approaches a longitudinal direction. 
Its rivers run comparatively short courses, and their banks 
offer but few level spots fit for cultivation, and still less 
accommodation for roads. The interstices of the hills which 



STEAMEK PROM THUoNDIIJEM. 



41 



run from the main chain to the sea, are occupied by fiords 
and gulfs ; and in numberless cases, these hills, being 
wholly separated from the mainland, form groups of pre- 
cipitous, often almost inaccessible islands. When to this is 
added the rapid approach to a polar climate, where winter 
swallows up more than three-fourths of the year, it will be 
understood that in leaving .Throndhj em, we enter upon a 
country secluded by all its physical circumstances from 
the rest of the world, and possessing many corresponding 
peculiarities. 

As roads almost entirely cease at no great distance 
from Throndhj em, and communication is kept up by water 
stages, aided by a few " portages" across narrow necks of 
land, it was a most serious undertaking, before the insti- 
tution of steam packets, to traverse the space of above 700 
English miles which separates Throndhj em from Hammer- 
fest, the northernmost town not only in Norway but in the 
world. The few travellers whom curiosity, or the love of 
science or of sport, impelled to perform this tedious and 
most fatiguing tour — the Acerbis, the Von Buchs, the 
Brookes of the earlier part of the century — were in some 
degree rewarded for their privations, by the more accurate 
insight they obtained into some of the features of that 
interesting country, than is to be thought of in these days, 
when, by the admirable and wise regulations of Govern- 
ment, commodious steamboats establish a convenient and 
safe communication, once a fortnight, in summer, to every 
part of the coast. Taking advantage of this arrangement, 
I left Throndhj em with the companions of my journey 
from Christiania, on board the steamer " Prinds Gustav," 
bound for Hammerfest. Having been for a fortnight 
almost constantly on board this well-appointed and well- 



42 



NORDLAND. 



officered vessel, I cannot but record my obligations to 
Captain Lous of the Norwegian navy, who commands it, 
who exerted no common assiduity and no common talents, 
to render the voyage agreeable and instructive to all his 
passengers, and for his courtesy to myself, I retain feelings 
of the liveliest gratitude. 

The English friends with whom I had travelled from 
Christiania were on their way to the far north for salmon- 
fishing. My objects, though different, attracted me in the 
same direction, and we only parted under the 70th degree 
of latitude. I had long desired to see the coast scenery of 
Norway, and to appreciate some of the peculiarities of an 
arctic country, its snows and its glaciers. The time of year 
favoured my anxiety to see the sun make the clear circuit 
of the heavens ; for though we had left England on the 
longest day, the change of the sun's declination is at first 
so slow, that even in the middle of July it is not necessary 
to advance more than two degrees within the arctic circle 
to have the sun above the horizon at midnight, and still less, 
if the effect of refraction be included. Even at Christiania 
there was no night, and we were charmed with the long 
serene evenings. But when we crossed the Dovre-field we 
observed at once the effect of above two degrees of latitude 
gained, and of the depression of the northern horizon. The 
nights were glaringly bright, and almost banished sleep. 
Thus day after day we chased the sun, first in carrioles, then 
in the steamer, till at length we fairly hunted him down, 
and with the fortunate concurrence of splendid weather, we 
finally enjoyed the arctic nights in the highest perfection. 

The sail down the Throndhjems-fiord resembles so 
strikingly scenery of the coasts of Argyll and Inverness 
shires, that 1 must once more refer to the comparison with 



THBONDHJEMS-FIORD — VAERS. 



43 



Scotland as conveying the clearest idea of its character. 
Wood abounds more than is common in the West High- 
lands so near the sea. As long as the mountains on 
either side of the fiord are at all sheltered from the direct 
blasts from the ocean, the birch in particular flourished at 
a very considerable elevation, and descends to the water's 
edge. 

As we approached the open sea, the hills became less 
bold, and at Bejan, a hamlet just at the entrance of the 
Throndhj ems-fiord, the rock is, for a limited space, of old 
red sandstone, and the appearance of smoothed and 
rounded rocks (roches moutonnees) universal. This continues 
more or less along the coast for a great way north of 
Throndhj em, to the exclusion of striking cliff scenery, as 
the undulating character of the rocky surface is more and 
more strongly developed close to the sea, and even under 
its waves. As long rows of low rocky islets, which in very 
many places run parallel to the coast, have also the same 
character, it is easy to see that a somewhat monotonous 
style of scenery must be the result. These low islands or 
vaers are a singular feature of the Norwegian coast. The 
steamer often works its way amongst them for miles, es- 
caping from the seeming entanglement of monotonous 
swells of rock by which she is at each instant surrounded, 
in a way truly surprising. Striking examples of this occurred 
amidst the desolate flats of Nord Kroken, on the second 
morning of our voyage, having passed in the night the 
great Folden-fiord, a wide inlet fully exposed to the south- 
west, and on that account dreaded by coasting-vessels. 
Here and elsewhere on this coast, the S.W. wind is more 
feared than the N.W., to which the coast is more direct! v 
exposed; but this arises from the sheltering ridges of rocky 



44 NORDLAND. 

islands which commonly run nearly in the 8.W. direction, 
determining the bearing of the principal fiords and sounds. 
The Namsen river, well known to English salmon-fishers, 
falls into the Folden-fiord. The station-house of Nord 
Kroken stands amidst a wilderness of rounded islets, just 
high enough to conceal one another, as seen from ship, and 
giving rise to the infinity of intricate passages already 
mentioned. 

The first object of really picturesque interest which we 
saw after leaving Throndhjem, is the hill of Torghattan, 
in the island of Torget, in latitude 65|°. It is of granite, 
and its form, as seen from the south, is not unlike the peaked 
waterproof hats sometimes worn by sailors — whence in fact 
its name. A view of it, as approached from the south, is 
given at the head of this chapter. It was, perhaps, first 
described by Pontoppidan, the well-known Bishop of Ber- 
gen, who, though he had not visited it himself, mentions 
correctly the existence of a cavern, which pierces the highest 
part of the island right through the centre, forming a 
tunnel of immense size. This peculiarity appears to have 
escaped the sagacious inquiry of Von Buch,"j" although 
he mentions the island and its singular form, at the same- 
time ascribing to it a height much greater than it is pro- 
bably entitled to. Sir Arthur Brooke^: first described the 
cavern correctly, and from his own inspection. He does 
not, however, give the dimensions, as ascertained or even 
estimated by himself, except when he says that the 
height exceeds that of a lofty cathedral. Those recorded 
by Pontoppidan are, doubtless, extravagant — namely, six 

* Pontoppidan's Natural History of Norway, i. 47. 
f Travels (in German), i. 273. } Travels to the North Cape, p. 208. 



TOROHATTAN — REMARKABLE CAV ERN. 



45 



thousand feet long, and three hundred high.* The hole 
is directly under the peak of the hill ; its general direction 
is somewhere nearly north and south, and it slopes mate- 
rially to the northward, so that the light can only be seen 
through it when we approach it from that side. The course 
of the steamer did not, however, carry us, on either voyage, 
into the line of the cavern % although we could observe its 
general position. On nearer approach, the outline of the 
island was singular in the extreme. It rises from the sea 
symmetrically on either side, in a series of swelling humps, 
of nearly bare rock, which seemed at first to be absolutely 
destitute of vegetation, so that we were astonished to find 
that the island was inhabited, when we came within view 
of a small group of cottages in a bay on its eastern shore, 
accompanied by a few green fields. The swelling surface 
rises in a succession of heaps, to between one-third and 
one-half of the greatest height of the land; the whole 
is then surmounted by a blunted cone of perfectly bare 
rock, which forms the Torghattan. To take a sort of mean, 
amongst the extremely various heights assigned to it, 
possibly 1200 feet may not be very far from the truth. 

There cannot be a question but that the whole of the 
lower region of the island (which it appears from the best 
authorities is not, as I had myself thought on both occa- 
sions of sailing past it, confined to the mountain and its 
shelving declivity all round, but stretches several miles in 
a northerly direction) has been abraded by glaciers, or by 
some similar agency. It would be a matter of interest to 
explore the exact height to which the striae or groovings 
caused by the abrading force have extended, if indeed they 

* Three hundred, not six hundred, as given in Arrowsmith's Map of Norway. 



46 



NORDLAND. 



do not reach the very summit, which, from its appearance 
in several directions, one is almost led to imagine ; and it 
would also be of interest to ascertain the compass-bearing 
of these marks. Voyaging in a steamboat is unfavourable 
to accurate local observations. I will therefore merely quote 
from my notes, written immediately after, my impressions on 
the subject of these " dressed" surfaces. " Already on the 
Throndhjems-hord, and ever since, the most characteristic 
forms of the roclies moutonnees* everywhere appear. The 
whole face of the country presents the forms of domes 
arrondisrf of which Torghattan may be taken as an excel- 
lent example, — but it is universal. Now this is the more 
striking, because I looked almost in vain for these forms 
in the Dovre-field aiid its declivities, where, most of all, I 
expected to see them. Of course I cannot pronounce on 
the direction of the striw, which I could not land to 
examine. It rather appeared to me, however, that, on 
the coast at least, the direction of friction marked by the 
stoss and the lee seite f was parallel to the coast, and from 
north to south." I am aware that this statement is at 
variance with observations (made also in passing on a 

* These are the terms used by De Saussure, De Charpentier, and 
Agassiz, with reference to certain characteristic forms of rocks in Switzerland, 
which have, consequently, become technical in describing a certain class of 
phenomena. 

-j- Terms first used by Swedish geologists to express the characteristic 
impression made by the Abrading Force (whatever may have been its nature) 
which once swept over almost all Scandinavia, and over most other mountainous 
tracts in Europe. The stoss seite is that side of a hillock or protuberance 
which, having been exposed to the shock, has been, in consequence, most 
freely acted on and abraded ; the Ice seite, on the contrary, is the sheltered 
or lee side, over which the moving mass passed almost without resistance. 
In this way, the direction of the shock may be in many cases cerlainly 
estimated. 



ROCHES MOUTONNEES " — BRONO. 



47 



steam-boat voyage) by M. Siljestrom,* who was attached 
to the French expedition to Scandinavia, and who con- 
sidered that the shock came from the S.E., and describes 
the strice as nearly perpendicular, and not parallel to the 
coast. His observations were made at Somnass, a part of 
the mainland nearly opposite to Torghattan. Local cir- 
cumstances do unquestionably produce sudden variations 
comparable to this ; and it is quite possible that both these 
statements are substantially correct. Detached blocks, 
or "erraties" — the almost invariable accompaniments of 
rounded and polished rocks — are also present, though 
comparatively rare on this coast. Some good specimens 
may be seen on the most artificial-looking surfaces of the 
low rocks which rise from the sea, immediately to the 
north of Torghattan, and on the same side (the west) of 
the sound of Brono, which we have now entered. 

Beginning with Torghattan, the coast maintains for 
hundreds of miles a character of surpassing interest and 
variety. It may be said to commence with the province 
of Nordland, into which we enter on leaving the Thron- 
dhjem's Amt, some miles south of the place we are de- 
scribing. The neighbourhood of Brono affords many 
striking combinations of rock, and there is a sufficient 
foreground of bright green grass and other vegetation, 
with a few substantial houses, to give more effect to the 
desolate sublimity of the peaks both of the islands and on 
the mainland. Brono itself boasts of a neat church; and it 
appears to be a place much frequented, for its secure 
anchorage, by the shipping which navigates this dangerous 
coast. Both on our northern and southern voyage — the 

* Voyage en Scandinavie, &c, public par M. Gaimard Geographie 
Physique, i. 210. 



48 



NORDLAND. 



weather being fine, and the wind favourable for vessels 
bound to the southward — groups, or rather files, of heavy- 
laden "yachts" enlivened the scene, all packed to an 
almost incredible extent with dried fish — the pride and 
the wealth of Nordland — bound for the Bergen market. 
They are remarkably square-built vessels, propelled through 
the water by one huge square sail, attached by a yard 
to the single mast — the fish being built up round the mast 
in the general shape, and almost to the height, of a com- 
mon hay-stack. The odour of the cargo is very percep- 
tible to leeward, even at a great distance. The sailing 
powers of these vessels, and their fitness for the tre- 
mendous seas which they have to encounter, is very 
commonly decried. I found, however, that both were 
spoken of in terms of commendation by our experienced 
and enlightened captain, who probably knew quite as much 
about the matter as the aforesaid critics. It does appear 
to me — though I speak with very great diffidence on the 
subject of the characteristics of a people with whom I 
mixed so little — that the practical sagacity and ready 
intelligence of the humbler class of the Norwegians has 
not been generally appreciated, at least by English tra- 
vellers ; excepting, of course, Mr. Laing, whose favourable 
opinion is well known; and as to boating, I certainly 
never felt more confidence in following a trained Swiss 
mountaineer over his native hills, than in entrusting my 
safety to the sailors either of Norway or of Shetland, who 
are, in fact, the same race, and whose unstable-looking 
boats, or " skiffs," are managed by them with such unerring 
dexterity. On my southern voyage, we overtook 20 or 30 
of the yachts in the course of a few hours in this very 
sound. In addition to their square sail, they spread a 



THE SEVEN SISTERS. 



49 



small jib to the bowsprit, and a little strip of a parallelo- 
gram sail was hung up at the stern. Though deeply laden, 
they made respectable way, and when light are said to sail 
nine knots an hour. 

A few hours after leaving Brono — having passed the 
striking peaks of the island of Vego on our left, the 
shores of the mainland being still of smooth-shaven, rocky 
knolls, surmounted by cliffs and precipices — we touched at 
Tioto, a remarkably flat, well- cultivated island, owned for 
generations by the Brodkorb family, whose hospitality has 
been recorded by almost every traveller in Nordland. Not 
long after, we reached Alstahong, a station of the steamer. 
Here we halted in a pretty and sheltered bay, where we 
found, as usual, the house of a substantial merchant, near 
which were some green, well-leafed trees — probably birch 
and alder, or the broad-leaved willow. The place looked 
inviting, under a pleasant sunshine, which we enjoyed. 
But the wilderness was not far behind ; for, a short distance 
to the northward, rose the indescribably barren and rugged 
chain of mountains called the Seven Sisters, whose peaks 
and ravines far exceeded in savageness and desolation 
anything we had yet seen in Norway. The height of this 
range has never, I believe, been accurately determined. 
Von Buch estimates it at 4000 feet ; perhaps it is not so 
great. The snow line appears to be scarcely reached, as 
it occurred only in detached masses and in fissures, in the 
third week of July. The Seven Sisters appear (from the best 
maps) to form an island, which occupies the entrance of the 
Vefsen-fiord, which issues at Alstahong. It is very difficult, 
or impossible, on a cursory view, to distinguish the mainland 
from the islands of this extraordinary coast. The island 
in question, called Alsteen Oe, is entirely formed by the 

E 



50 



NOKDLAND. 



range of mountains just mentioned, whose six or seven 
distinct peaks form a ridge running to the N.W. which 
appear in many places inaccessible, presenting the charac- 
teristic ruggedness of the formation — mica slate — which is 
here predominant. The distinction between the jagged 
summits of the Seven Sisters and the chafed and undulating 
rocks at their base is highly characteristic. 

It would be tedious to enumerate all the islands and 
headlands which were passed during the same day's voy- 
age. The forms of the Lovunden and Threnen islands — 




LOVUNDEN and threnen islands. 



lone rocks exposed to the swell of the North Sea — reminded 
me forcibly of the scenery on the west coast of Shet- 
land, which very naturally has a striking analogy with 
Norway in very many particulars, The cliffs of Lovunden 
resemble those of Foula, seen from St. Magnus' Bay, and 
which I had ardently wished to visit. On the land side 
rose the (Extind, a blunt cone of rock, apparently quite 
inaccessible, still patched with snow on the summit, and 
presenting one of the most striking objects of its kind I 
ever saw. I ought not to compare it with the Mont 
Cervin of the Alps; yet it is not without analogy. It rises 
nearly from the sea, and its base is undulated by those 



51 



HE ST. VI AND 



CEXTIND — 



same shaven and furrowed rocks which enforce, by contrast, 
the rugged elevation of the tops. 




CEXTIND. 

The same remark applies to the island called Hest- 
mand, or Horseman, under which we sailed in the course 
of the evening. Its form is singular, and is said in some 
points of view to resemble a cloaked horseman in profile. 
To us it was interesting, as announcing our arrival at the 
Arctic Circle. The roches moutonnees here sink under the 
waves 5 the middle region of the island is green; indeed, 
at every spot where soil could accumulate between the 
rocks, either of coast or island, we now became sensible 
of the existence of a peculiarly fresh and verdant arctic 
vegetation forced into rapid development by the un- 
ceasing presence of the sun. I was assured that on the 
seemingly bare HestmanrU5 the grass was knee deep. At 



52 



NOEDLAND. 



11 p.m. we turned sharply into the pretty bay of Kodo, with 
its tidy pleasant merchant's dwelling and warehouses. The 
coast now rose before us and on the right, with more than 
common majesty ; and over the snowy summits of Fon- 
dalen, which were free from the slightest haze, the rich 
glow of an arctic summer's midnight prevailed, and kept 
all the passengers on deck in fixed admiration of so solemn 
and glorious a scene. We calculated that the sun's upper 
limb would not sink above half a degree during the night, 
and its ruddy glow never entirely left the range of snow- 
fields, which we were never tired of contemplating. For 
myself, the interest was much increased by being able 
clearly to distinguish true glaciers descending by the 
hollows of the mountains towards the level of the sea, to 
which, however, we could not trace them, as the intricacy 
of the coast concealed their lower terminations in the 
Skars-fiord opposite Eodo. Even at a distance I could 
see very well by the aid of a good telescope, that they 
resembled in all essential particulars the Swiss glaciers, 
only occurring at a level of about 3500 feet lower. They 
were true glaciers, not neve; in other words, the snow 
regularly disappears every summer from their surface, 
which is furrowed with transverse crevasses, and the 
whole mass descends, river-like, in the ravines, being fed 
by the contribution of great sncw-basins constituting the 
" fond," as it is called in Norway, or snowy accumula- 
tions above. I felt the most lively desire to stop at 
Rodo, where good accommodation and a boat might no 
doubt be had, and these glaciers be visited in detail and 
without much difficulty ; but it was not to be thought of; 
so I was obliged to content myself with many lingering 
glances. These glaciers were the first I had seen in Nor- 



ULACIERS OF FOND ALEN— KUNNEN. 



53 



way, and, indeed, are separated by several hundred miles 
from the next to the south, which belong to the high moun- 
tains on the frontier of the Bergen Stift. Von Buch states* 
that one of these glaciers of Fondal opposite Haasvar falls 
into the sea. I do not think, however, that the great geolo- 
gist — or indeed any other traveller who has published his 
observations — himself visited the interior of these fiords, and 
this interesting question deserves a minute examination. 

We lingered on deck long after midnight had passed, 
and thus gained a sight of the magnificent headland of 
Kunnen, a mountain with an almost precipitous face towards 
the ocean, whilst its mass is connected with the mainland 
only by a strip of flat alluvium, giving to it the appearance 
of an island. During the whole night there was shed from 
the northern sky a warm sunset tint over the scenery — 
sea, rock, and verdure (for much beautiful verdure there 
is even here), and snow, and glacier, — whose continuing 
effect was indescribably harmonious and peaceful. Thus, 
in one day's voyage, beginning with Torghattan, and end- 
ing with Kunnen, we had enjoyed, under the most favour- 
able circumstances of calm sea and cheerful weather, and 
a glowing midnight, an amount of majestic scenery with 
which, in its kind, perhaps no European coast can com- 
pare. 

Our next halt was at Bodo, or, more correctly speaking, 
at Hundholm, an insignificant village on a little rocky creek, 
about a mile and a half from the church and parsonage of 
Bodo, which lies on the Salten-fiord, an important inlet 
stretching many miles landwards towards the Swedish 
frontier. As the steamer makes a short stay here — rather 



* Travels, i. 311. 



54 



N'ORDLAND. 



out of compliment to the aspirations of the place to become 
a commercial port, than because there is any real business 
to be done — I went on shore for some hours, both on my 
northward voyage and on my return, anxious to make some 
acquaintance with the actual terrestrial peculiarities of a 
country within the Arctic Circle. Once again the likeness to 
the Highlands of Scotland in natural features was apparent 
and striking, whilst the houses, which are by no means des- 
titute of comfort and neatness, rather recall the dwellings of 
Switzerland. Cultivation was here tolerably systematic, and 
there is a very fair road, which extends a few miles inland. 
There were a few crops of barley and some fields of potatoes 
well advanced for the season, together with abundance of 
excellent pasture. It is to be regretted that so little attempt 
is made to raise green crops for the feeding of stock during 
the long winter. A country whose capabilities seem 
almost boundless in July and August for the maintenance 
of animal life, might surely make some provision against 
the rigorous season. An impression of this kind is very 
general amongst the educated Norwegians, with whom I 
often spoke on the subject. The complete absence of 
turnips — of which I did not see a single field during my 
whole journey, nor, I believe, a single specimen on the 
table — seemed astonishing, and yet it is certain that this 
crop grows luxuriantly, and ripens well. The venerable 
priest of Bodo, Mr. Stein, with whom I had some conver- 
sation, confirmed the view I had taken, and assured me 
that not only at Bodo, but much farther north, the turnip 
grows to great perfection. He had formerly been priest at 
Carlso, in latitude 70° (where he received Sir Arthur 
Brooke, as related in his travels), and even there the turnip 
throve admirably. As it is, the horses and cattle are fed 



BODU — SULITELMA RANGE. 



55 



in winter partly on dried leaves of the birch, but chiefly 
on seaweed, and on the boiled heads of fish. The old 
clergyman admitted that much might be done for the 
support of stock ; but he complained of the difficulty of 
introducing any novelty into their simple agriculture, 
and finally returned to the primary difficulty — " here," 
he said, " we have nine months winter, and three weeks of 
summer !" 

The familiar flowers of moor and morass were those of 
home, with a few additions entirely new to me, such as 
the celebrated Moltibeer 1 a delicious wild fruit, now only in 
flower, and another called the Swinibeer, in still greater 
abundance. The common birch, well leaved and fragrant, 
which grows to 12 or 15 feet even on heights exposed to 
the sea, is intermingled with the alder and mountain ash, 
and two kinds of willow, one with a broad and glossy leaf. 
Having been separated accidentally from my steamboat 
companions, I ascended a low range of hills partially 
covered with wood, and soon reached a solitary lake or tarn, 
of a very pleasing and by no means savage character. It 
was fringed all round with birch trees, and in the distance 
towards the east, I obtained an excellent view of the upper 
part of the Salten-fiord, and a range of mountains beyond, 
in the direction of the Swedish frontier, very thickly covered 
with snow. I sketched the most conspicuous of these, 
thinking that it might be Sulitelma, the highest of arctic 
mountains, not only in Scandinavia, but in the north polar 
regions, rising to 6200 English feet, according to the 
accurate Wahlenberg. It proved, however, that it was 
only that part of the same range called Blaamands-field, 
which is visible from the neighbourhood of Bodo, at least, 
unless in the clearest weather. T repeated my search on 



5G N0RDLAN1). 

my southward voyage, having ascended a hill considerably 
higher not far from the sea coast, but with no better suc- 
cess ; a haze partially obscured the frontier range of the 

o 

Kjolen. Blaamands-fleld appears to be the Almajalos of 




BLAAMANDS- FIELD. 

Wahlenberg and the Swedes, and is 5500 English feet 
high. Sulitelma and its glaciers were accurately described 
by the eminent Swedish botanist just named, more than 40 
years ago, at a time when perhaps no other mountain in 
Scandinavia was equally well known, and was by him com- 
pared, with regard to the level of permanent snow, and the 
phenomena of glaciers, with the Alps as described by 
Saussure. On these accounts it deserves to be considered 
classical. Its very remote position with respect to habita- 
tions, its great northern latitude, its uncommon height, and, 
what perhaps is not without some weight, its high sounding 



KJERRIXGO — SINGULAR A IG CILL ES . 



57 



name, have given it a conspicuous place on most maps, 
and make it a real feature in the physical geography of the 
country, though almost exclusively known by the single 
researches of Wahlenberg. It was therefore with regret 
that I gave up the belief that I had seen this interest- 
ing landmark. I shall hereafter refer to its development 
of glaciers in connection with others in the north of 
Norway. 

From the same hill, overlooking the harbour of Bodo, I 
had an extensive view along the sea coast. To the south- 
ward were several mountain ranges of picturesque form 
stretching to the sea, and with snow lying on the upper 
third of their height. Seaward, and nearly opposite to 
where I stood, lay the very picturesque island of Lande- 
gode ; whilst the horizon in the same direction, and towards 
the north, began to be occupied by the peaks of the Lofodden 
Islands, rising in forms as picturesque as those of the 
Threnen, but far more numerous. 

On resuming our voyage, we passed some spots as green 
and cheerful as any we had seen in Norway, especially at 
Kjerringo, where there is an establishment on a most com- 
fortable scale ; but a few miles more brought us to a scene 
of desolate grandeur, rendered more striking by the contrast. 
The headland which divides the north and south Folden 
fiords may vie with the Aiguilles of Mont Blanc in the 
fantastic singularity of its forms. I have nowhere seen 
summits more perfectly acuminated. The principal group 
is arranged in what is often, though inaccurately, called a 
crater form — making, apparently, almost a circle of steep 

* Near Bodo I observed erratic blocks of highly crystalized syenite — 
white granite — and quartzose porphyry. The prevailing rock of the country 
is mica slate. 



58 



NORDLAUD. 



peaks, the principal outlet being towards the sea. I have 
endeavoured to represent it without exaggeration in Plate 
II. We have here a repetition of the remarkable phenomenon 
described in speaking of the Seven Sisters, whose general 
character resembles that of the scenery in question, — 
namely, that these singularly precipitous mountain ranges 
seem to rise from a comparative level of gentle undulations, 
destitute of cliffs and even of angular prominences ; which, 
being for the most part of the same formation, offer no 
primary solution of the obvious diversity by an incongruity 
of material. This is so very striking here — not only in the 
rocks, of which the sketch illustrates this description, but in 
the extensive ranges with which they are connected — that it 
compelled attention ; and on recollecting what I had seen 
along this coast and elsewhere, I concluded — whilst sur- 
veying the rocks of Folden — that, as a general rule, the 
surfaces of erosion (whether produced by glaciers or other- 
wise) have a tolerably definite superior limit, as in the Alps; 
only here at somewhere about 1500 to 2000 feet above the 
sea, instead of 7000 or 8000 as in Switzerland. But the 
essential character is the same, and the completeness of 
the abrasion increases as we approach the level of the sea. 
The outlines which I took recall vividly the corresponding 
scenery near the glacier of the Aar, to which attention was 
first called, I believe, by M. Agassiz — the limit of the sur- 
faces of friction coinciding, according to him, with the level 
of ancient glaciers, above which only the peaks of the higher 
mountains stood forth bare, or merely snow covered, but free 
from the abrading influence of moving ice. In the same point 
of view, the cause of my surprise on the Dovre-field, where 
such traces of friction sparingly appear, admitted of a 
satisfactory explanation. The plateau of the Dovre is at 



CONSIDERATIONS ON ANCIENT GLACIERS. 



59 



once too level and too high to favour the formation of 
glaciers in active motion — too level, because it has been 
shewn by my observations on the alpine glaciers, that the 
rate of progression depends on the slope; and too high, 
because, if ever the climate of Scandinavia was so much 
colder than at present, as to have glaciers on nearly every 
part of its coast, the climate at 4000 feet or more of elevation 
must have been so severe as to prevent the snow accumu- 
lated there from acquiring the true glacier character which 
is known to depend upon a partial fluidity combined with 
great pressure. Adopting hypothetically, then, the theory 
of glaciers to account for the singular configuration of the 
Norwegian rocks, it fits so far well in its different parts as 
to explain plausibly the phenomena ; and whether correct 
or not, the analogy on a great scale of the line of demarca- 
tion of the rugged summits and the abraded slopes of the 
Norwegian and Swiss Alps, inclines us strongly to adopt a 
common theory in explaining both. 

It is quite impossible to describe the varied grandeur of 
the scenery of the coast from between the Folden-fiord and 
the Vest-fiord, one of the greatest of the inlets on the western 
shores of Norway. As the steamer pursued its rapid 
course through a tranquil sea, and under the very rocks, 
new forms of mountains rose in succession, assuming more 
and more the true granitic character, and often nearly the 
volcanic, as the red colour and the forms of false craters, 
frequent in certain granitic formations, obtained more and 
more. The brightness of the green with which the shores 
and bases of the hills were clothed, added to the beauty of 
the effect by contrast with the ruddy hues of the bare sum- 
mits, and the large patches of snow which still rested in the 
hollows; but as sunset, or rather as midnight, approached, 



60 



NOKDLAND. 



and the attractions of another calm and mild evening 
rivetted us to the deck, a still more astonishing prospect 
was presented to us. In approaching the station of Groto, 
the steamer was navigated through a singular natural 
canal, of so intricate a kind, that more than once it was 
impossible to divine how she should be extricated ; and in 
one place the depth of water is so inconsiderable as to be 
only navigable within a certain time of high water. This 
difficult passage, called Bringebeer Sound, saves a wide 
circuit; the granitic rocks have low, shaven, undulating 
surfaces, which conceal the distant horizon. On leaving 
the thriving merchant's establishment at Groto, and 
emerging from the labyrinth of low islands and headlands, 
we find ourselves quite suddenly in the Vest-fiord, with 
the stupendous range of the Lofodden islands spread in a 
moment panorama-like before us. In but a few instances 
have I been so struck with any prospect. Mr. Everest has 
described the Lofoddens, and truly, as resembling the jaw 
of a shark.* From the place I describe, more than one- 
third of the entire horizon (125°) was occupied by the 
sharply defined jagged summits of this wonderful range 
of island mountains. The actual extent on the map, from 
Rost, the outmost of them, to the sound or channel which 
separates Hindo from the mainland, is no less than 130 
English miles ; and the whole of this extent is one mass 
of peaks, which at a distance appear inaccessible, as many 
of them probably are. To sketch such an outline would be 
all but impossible, and, if possible, could give no idea of the 
scene. The sun still hovered over the pinnacles of the 

* " There lay before us the long range of the Lofoddens, 70 or 80 miles 
distant, from near Bodo, like the jaw of a great shark, so many and so jagged 
were their points." — Everest, a Journey through Norway, cjr. p. 70. 



LOFODDEN ISLANDS — FISHERY. 



61 



Lofoddeii when I retired at a late hour. We were then in 
the midst of the great Vest-fiord, dreaded by mariners for 
the terrible swell of the ocean, and the real dangers of 
the Maelstrom when the wind blows from the south-west. 
It was now in the diametrically opposite quarter, and the 
warmth, the stillness, and repose of every thing, recalled 
thoughts of the sunny south,, far more than a latitude con- 
siderably to the north of any part of Iceland. No doubt 
all these things wear a very different aspect according 
to the accidents of weather. Nothing struck me more on 
this voyage than the almost complete absence of low fogs, 
indeed, of mists of every kind, which mar so often the 
really grand scenery of our own Hebrides, and especially 
of Orkney and Shetland. Under other circumstances, with 
the mountain tops obscured, and the sea rolling in a heavy 
swell, a voyage to the Lofoddens would be far from a plea- 
sure excursion, and I can conceive no country where the 
impressions of a traveller are likely to be more dependent 
on the weather. 

In my case it fortunately happened that our return voy- 
age was equally favoured in this respect with that going- 
northwards ; and, to avoid repetition, I shall here include 
what I saw of the scenery of the Lofodden group at that 
time. The main object of the steamer being to establish a 
regular communication between all moderately-inhabited 
places on the coast, it performs a zigzag voyage, which is 
favourable to an acquaintance with the intricacies of the 
coast. The cod fishing of the Lofoddens is celebrated all 
over the north. Here, chiefly in the inclement months of 
February and March, fishing boats, from an extent of coast 
of several hundreds of miles, are concentrated to the num- 
ber, it is said, of 3000, manned by 16,000 hardy fishermen, 



62 



N OR D LAND. 



who catch in the season not less than 3,000,000 cod fish,° 
which are conveyed about midsummer to Bergen in yachts, 
packed in the manner already described. So great a con- 
course of seafaring people, gives to the remote Lofoddens a 
character of importance and a certain activity. In order 
to accommodate the interests of the inhabitants, the steamer 
regularly passes between two of the largest islands of the 
group, Hindo and Vaago, to call at a place called Stejlo, 
on the remote isle of Ulvo, lying quite on the outer, or 
oceanic side of the Lofodden range, which may well be 
considered as one of the most remote spots in the world. 
The steamer having deposited its passengers and cargo, and 
taken up others at Stejlo, returns by the self-same track to 
the Vest-fiord, and resumes its northward (or southward) 
voyage. This considerable detour has the advantage not 
only of bringing the respectable community of Ulfo into 
almost weekly communication with the mainland, but it 
gratifies the traveller with a closer insight into the scenery 
and formation of these astonishing islands. The range of 
Lofoddens, with the exception of a few insignificant islets 
at the extreme end, are so closely dovetailed or articulated 
into one another, that they appear in every point of view 
as a continuous ridge of land. They may indeed not 
inaptly be compared to the vertebrae of an animal (the 
island of Host being the coccyx), bare and knotted, jagged 
all over with processes, and united so closely as to resist at 
every point the insinuation of a foreign body. Right up to 
this formidable barrier did our little steamer urge its steady 
course, and grope out a channel, imperceptible until en- 
tered, between the two large islands already named. This 

* These fish are chiefly dried without salt in the sun and wind, a pro- 
cess peculiar to the clear dry climate of Nordland and Finmarken. 



I a > FODDEN — B AFTE-S UN D . 



63 



remarkable channel is called the Rafte-sund. It is a tor- 
tuous canal of 14 or 15 English miles in length, and 
always narrow, but with abundant depth of water, from 
which the land rises steeply, and even precipitously, on 
either side, but particularly on the west — perhaps the 
highest points of Lofodden being those of the island of 
Vaago, which attain a height of between 3000 and 4000 
feet, and seem to rise almost out of the waters of the Rafte- 
sund, especially near its entrance, which presented a scene 
of imposing grandeur. On our return voyage, just as the 
glorious beams of the sinking sun seemed to have put to 
flight the clouds which during the day (by an unusual 
chance), had concealed the higher tops, and which, divid- 
ing the peaks in two by long fleecy tracks of ruddy mist, 
slowly disclosed their entire sublimity as the vapour 
melted imperceptibly away. 

The Aiguilles of Vaago resemble those of Chamouni in 
form and general structure, being of reddish granite, and 
harbouring vast snow beds, and even small glaciers, amongst 
their clefts and ravines. One of the most striking scenes is 
the Svart-fiord, a small inlet on the west side of the Rafte- 
sund, so completely engulphed under frowning precipices, 
that it seemed as if daylight could never penetrate, and in 
the gloom of evening the eye failed to fathom its recesses. 
Yet even here, on a small and green projection, a group 
of cottages, with cheerful red-tiled roofs, and ascending 
columns of hospitable smoke, gave evidence of habitation, 
and probably of decency and comfort. I have attempted 
in Plate III. to give an idea of this scene as it appeared an 
hour before midnight. The eastern shore of the sound, 
though steep, is of a milder character, the hills of Hindo 
being covered with admirable green pasture up to the very 



64 



NOKDLAND. 



tops of those visible from the water, which may be from 
1500 to 2000 feet high, and the lower part is garnished 
with birch wood and enclosed pastures. Some of the most 
level and fertile spots were evidently remnants of old sea 
beaches at two different levels higher than the present, and 
in one or two places mounds of debris jutted into the water, 
having exceedingly much the appearance of moraines. In- 
deed, it is in the highest degree probable that the Lofod- 
den range, which still contains glaciers, was at one time 
much more thickly covered with moving ice. 

The bay or sound of Ulfo, or Hasslo (for they are the 
same), presents a far milder aspect than might be expected 
from its situation. As we issue from the Eafte-sund, the 
eye rests on green slopes wider and opener than are com- 
mon on this coast ; and though here and there the snow 
lies in patches even to within a moderate distance of the 
sea, the verdure extends through and above them quite to 
the top of hills apparently 1500 feet in height; and as 
these are likewise clothed in many places with wood to a 
height of probably 800 feet, the summer aspect of the 
country is one of considerable abundance and comfort. As 
we called off the village of Stejlo in the very early morn- 
ing, the sight of the herds of sheep, cattle, and goats, being 
driven to the upper pastures, quite recalled a Swiss morn- 
ing scene, and were it not for the brief continuance of sum- 
mer, the pasturages of the Lofoddens alone would be quite 
inexhaustible. 

Returning through the narrow Rafte-sund, and making 
the circuit of Hindo, the nearest to the coast of the Lofod- 
den islands, we resumed our northward course, which had 
been interrupted by this excursion, and in passing through 
the sound separating Hindo from the continent, we were 



THE PINE— TIELLE-SUND — SENJEN. 



G5 



struck by the reappearance of the pine, which we had long- 
since lost sight of. It grows on the sheltered or eastern 
side of the island, and rises, according to Von Buch, to a 
height of 650 feet, whilst the birch rises to at least 1400. 
This is indeed low, if we compare it to the limit of the pine 
on the north of the Dovre-field, where it is 2200, or to 3000 
feet in southern Norway, but, considering the effect of the 
sea blast upon trees, it may be regarded as remarkable. 
In the interior of the country (as I afterwards learned), the 
pine grows luxuriantly to a great height, and even corn is 
cultivated with advantage — I mean in the valley of Bardu, 
about 30 English miles from the coast, and in a latitude 
little short of 69°. A colony of peasants from Gulbrands- 
dal have migrated thither, and are said to have found it a 
fertile province. 

The scenery of Tielle-sund, where we leave Nordland 
and enter Finmarken, is much less striking than that of 
the Vest-fiord. A glacier, described by Von Buch,* as 
descending from the heights of the island of Hindo, escaped 
my notice. The appearance, not to be mistaken, of lime- 
stone cliffs, gives it a peculiar character, interesting not to 
the geologist alone. When I saw the stupendous precipices 
of Rolleno, composed of grey limestone below, and ap- 
parently of a sort of gneiss above, it recalled strongly the 
singular alternations of those rocks in the Bemese Alps, 
though here the strata are less contorted, and probably 
of much greater geological age. From hence the large 
island of Sen] en, one of the most considerable on this 
coast, presents an imposing appearance towards the north. 
I sketched the outline of its peaks, which strikingly re- 



* Travels (in German), vol. i. p. 356. 
F 



66 



NORDLAND. 



semble those of Arran, and, like them, are composed of 
granite. We made nearly the circuit of the island of 
Andorgo, and, at its northern extremity, saw a well-cha- 
racterised, but small glacier, which nestles in a ravine near 
the summit, without descending any great distance. 

From hence the lower scenery becomes richer, and, 
indeed, few countries possess a succession of greener and 
more beautiful landscapes than those which delighted 
us all along the sound which divides Senjen from the 
mainland. We passed many pretty hamlets amongst luxu- 
riant birch woods, interspersed with cultivated fields. 
Kloven is the dwelling of a flourishing merchant, and 
looked the picture of smiling comfort ; and as we steamed 
up the sound amidst the glories of an arctic night, about 
eleven o'clock, we met crowds of fishing boats returning 
from Finmarken, with their square sails set, dropping 
gently down with the northerly breeze. The midnight was 
superb. The sky was not clear, but the sunset tints 
(though the sun did not go down) illuminated a scene 
resembling parts of Loch Lomond or Loch Katrine, with 
a warm ruddy hue, which did not pass away like the 
transient glow of our summer evenings. Long after mid- 
night we reluctantly retired to rest. 

We passed through the narrows of the Ey Stromen 
whilst we were asleep, but on my return voyage I saw this 
remarkable strait and rapid, which I mention particularly 
on account of an imposing mountain, called the Bensjords- 
tind, on the eastern or continental shore, of which the 
height is certainly 4000 feet — the barometrical measurement 
of Mr. Everest * being confirmed by a later, I believe, tri- 



* Journey through Norway, p. 84. 



BENSJOEDSTIND. 



67 



gonometrical one, of which I was informed at Tromso. I 
mention this, because considerable doubt obtains .as to the 
height of many summits on this coast, which have only 
been estimated and not measured, and, judging by the eye, 
I should not have estimated the Bensjordstind at more 
than 3000 feet. This arises most probably from the simple 
and unbroken forms of the hills, and the absence of any 
objects-whose known dimension gives a scale of magnitude 
to the eye. On the side of the strait this mountain shews 
an exceedingly small glacier of the second order. It 
appears, however, from the accounts of Mr. Everest, who 
ascended it, and also from information which I had on the 
spot, that an extensive glacier lies on the landward side of 
the summit. Early in the morning we found ourselves at 
anchor off the town of Tromso. 



LAPP ENCAMPMENT. 



CHAPTER IV. 



FINMAKKEN. 

TROMSO— VISIT TO LAPP ENCAMPMENT— VOYAGE CONTINUE]) — ULFS-FIORD— LVNGEN-FIORD 
— PIPPERTIND GLACIER — SKJyERVO — GLACIER OF KAAGEN — QVENANGER-FIORD AND 
MOUNTAINS— SERENE MIDNIGHT— JOKULS-FIELD AND GLACIERS — ARRIVAL AT KAA- 
FIORD (ALT EN) — CLIMATE— CHARACTER OF THE COUNTRY— EXCURSION TO BOSEKOP 
AND ALTEN RIVER-THE QUAENS — RETURN VOYAGE. 

Tromso, the only place like a town which we had seen 
since leaving Throndhjem, lies on the eastern side of a small 
island of the same name, in latitude 69° 40'. It is defended 
from the western blasts by the shelter of the greater island 
of Kvalo, which lies outside of it. The sound of Tromso is 
consequently a secure shelter for shipping, and during sum- 



TKOMSO. 



69 



mer it is a place of considerable activity, its port being- 
filled with Eussian and other vessels, engaged in the 
Archangel trade, and its population including consuls of 
the chief maritime powers. Its quays are lined with ware- 
houses, built as usual of wood, and projecting into the 
water. Its main street includes many substantial and neat 
houses ; the population was stated some years ago at 
1500. It is said now to possess a good inn. The church 
is by no means so well cared for as might be desired ; 
though Tromso is the seat of a bishop, who however, I was 
informed, rarely officiates, but exercises a pastoral superin- 
tendence over his immense diocese, and was at this time 
absent on his annual visitation, which prevented me from 
presenting a letter of introduction with which I had been 
provided. There is an excellent school, conducted by a 
gentleman of talent and information, whose acquaintance I 
was fortunate enough to make, and in which every branch 
of knowledge, preliminary to a complete university course, 
is taught. On inquiry, I found that instruction is here 
given, not only in the grammar of the vernacular tongue, 
and in writing, arithmetic, and geography, but also in 
religion, history, English, French, German, Greek, Latin, 
and sometimes Hebrew ! 

The day on which we arrived was intensely hot and 
cloudless. It was difficult to support the direct rays of the 
sun. On shipboard, at noon, Leslie's photometer stood at 
from 90° to 94°, whether on a white or black ground — on 
shore, on a stone, at 85° and 86°. The temperature of the 
sea was 46°. 5 — of the air 58°, also about noon. About 3 
p.m., on shore, the photometer shewed 94° on a flagstone 
ground, and 79° on a post 5 feet high ; but owing to the 
small amount of reflection from the deep blue sky, this 



70 



FINMARKEN. 



indication (as I have shown to be the case under similar 
circumstances in the Alps* ) gives but an imperfect idea of 
the force of radiation. I regretted not to have an actino- 
meter, which I had been deterred from bringing by the 
reported impossibility of conveying any kind of glass 
instrument safely through the interior of Norway ; which, 
if attended with risk, is by no means impracticable, f I 
sought shelter from the intense heat amongst the pleasant 
birch woods which clothe the hill immediately behind the 
town, which I found to be traversed by numerous walks, 
carefully gravelled and fenced, leading to neat summer- 
houses, the property of the chief merchants of Tromso. The 
views over the sound were pleasing, and the manifest 
attention bestowed upon the condition of the pleasure 
ground made a favourable impression. 

In the evening, a party from the steamer, accompanied 
by several gentlemen from Tromso, proceeded in a boat 
across the sound (which is here only one-third of an English 
mile in width), to visit an encampment of Laplanders, 
who annually return to the same spot with their herds of 
reindeer. We landed near the opening of a valley which 
terminates in a hill of considerable height, partly covered 
with snow. It is called, I believe, the Tromso-tind. On 

* Travels in the Alps of Savoy. Second Edition, p. 451. 

•}■ I take this opportunity of mentioning that I made a considerable 
number of experiments on the temperature of the sea water at the surface ; 
but having no better means at my command than drawing it up by a bucket, 
into which I then plunged a thermometer, I at length found that in bright 
calm weather (such as we generally had) no dependence whatever could be 
placed on such observations, the surface water being unduly heated by con- 
tinued exposure to the sun. Thus I found successive bucketfuls drawn 
behind the same paddle-box to vary as much as 4°, and on one side of the 
ship and the other 10° ! 



LAPP CAMP NEAR TROMSO. 



71 



either side of the valley, hills rise to 1500 feet or more, and 
are green to the top. These furnish pasture to the reindeer. 
The bottom is well wooded with trees of respectable 
growth, far superior to those behind Tromso, and con- 
sisting, so far as I recollect, of birch, alder, and willow. 
There were no firs. The ground was boggy in many 
places, from the abundance of land-springs, which, in part 
at least, are alimented by the melting snows, which evi- 
dently had but lately disappeared on the shady slopes. 
One good spring, which appeared to rise from rock, and 
which might have an elevation of 150 feet above the sea, 
had a temperature of 37°.5. # 

We at length extricated ourselves from the wood, and 
crossing the stream, saw the Lapp camp before us on a 
dry and pleasant grassy space, about two and a half 
English miles from the sea. Some piles of sticks and 
mounds, which seemed like no human habitation, first 
attracted attention. The figure at the head of this chapter 
is from a sketch on the spot. The piles of sticks form (as 
we found) a sort of skeleton shed, which can be enclosed in 
bad weather by a kind of rude tarpaulin. They contain 
barrels, clothes, and many nondescript utensils and stores, 
which in fine weather are exposed suspended from the bare 
poles. Two low, round mounds of turf, overlaid with sticks 
and branches in a most disorderly fashion, composed the 
habitations of a multitude of men, women, and especially 
children, who seemed at first sight to be countless. Their 
appearance — uncouth, squalid, and diminutive in the ex- 
treme — was, I thought, decidedly unprepossessing. But an 
attentive survey brought out some more favourable features. 

* Another, not so large, and higher up, 38°. 8. 



72 



FINMAKKEN. 



The countenance was altogether unlike any I had seen, but 
by no means devoid of intelligence, and even a certain 
sweetness of expression. Notwithstanding that our party 
was tolerably numerous, they exhibited no signs either of 
distrust or of shyness ; and whilst some of them entered 
into conversation with one of the gentlemen from Tromso, 
who knew a little of their dialect, and others went attended 
by several small active dogs to fetch some reindeer for 
our inspection from the heights, the greater part remained 
quietly engaged in their huts, as we had found them, quite 
regardless of our presence. On inquiring into their occu- 
pation, we were surprised to find them possessed of some 
excellently printed and well cared-for books, particularly a 
bible in the Finnish tongue, and a commentary, each 
forming a quarto volume. We found some of them also 
engaged in writing. This was a matter of surprise, where 
we had been led to expect something approaching barbarism; 
and we had soon a proof that their pretension to religious 
impressions was not merely theoretical ; for they positively 
refused to taste the spirits which were freely offered to 
them, and of which our party partook; though it is well 
known that excessive and besotting drunkenness used to be 
the great sin of the Lappish tribes, and still is of those who 
have not been converted to habits of order and religion, by 
the zealous efforts of the Swedish missionaries (particularly, 
I believe, Lestadius and Stockfleth) who have indefatigably 
laboured amongst them. 

The characteristic composure of the people was well 
shown in a young mother with rather pleasing features, 
who brought her infant of four months old out of one of 
the huts, and seating herself on the sunny side of it, 
proceeded in the most deliberate way imaginable to pack 



LAPP HUTS — EEINDEER. 



73 



up the child for the night in its little wooden cradle, whilst 
half a dozen of us looked on with no small curiosity. 
The cradle was cut out of the solid, and covered with 
leather, flaps of which were so arranged as to lace across 
the top with leathern thongs ; — the inside and the little 
pillow were rendered tolerably soft with reindeer moss ; and 
the infant fitted the space so exactly that it could stir 
neither hand nor foot, yet made little resistance to the 
operation. A hood protected the head, whilst it admitted 
air freely. When the packing was finished, the little 
creature was speedily rocked asleep. The elder children 
were inquisitive, but far from rude, and they played nicely 
with one another. 

The Lapp hut is formed interiorly of wood, by means of 
curved ribs, which unite near the centre in a ring, which is 
open, and allows free escape for the smoke, the fire being 
lighted in the centre of the floor. The exterior is covered 
with turf. The door is of wood on one side. The inmates 
recline on skins on the floor, with their feet towards the 
fire ; and behind them, on a row of stones near the wall of 
the hut, are their various utensils. Their clothing — chiefly 
of tanned skins and woollen stuffs — looked very dirty. 
Their whole wealth consists in reindeer. The two families 
who frequent this valley possess about 700 deer. We saw, 
perhaps, about one-fourth of that number. A few of them 
were driven, for our inspection, into a circular enclosure of 
wooden paling, where they are habitually milked. One of 
the men dexterously caught them by the horns with a lasso, 
or noose. 1 The deer are small ; but some of them carry 
immense branching horns, the weight of which they seem 
almost unable to support. At this season their long winter 
coat of hair came off by handfuls. They make a low 



74 



FINMARKEN. 



grunting noise, almost like a pig : the milk is very small 
in quantity and excessively rich. 

It was eleven o'clock at night when we left the Lap- 
landers, and we reached the sea-side a few minutes before 
midnight. It was a glorious evening — the sun shining warm 
and ruddy across the calm sound. It was more like a 
sunset at Naples than what I had imagined of midnight in 
the arctic circle. The town and shores of Tromso lay in 
comparative shadow ; and as we rowed across to our 
steamer, we heard in the distance the not unmelodious 
chant of the Russian sailors, who amused themselves in 
boating and singing most of the night. 

We sailed northwards at noon the following day, and 
passed under the lofty island of Ringvadso, of which the 
glacier, and the origin of the name of the island, have been 
correctly described by Mr. Chambers, in his " Tracings of 
the North of Europe." The glacier has pushed before it a 
large moraine, which, extending quite to the sea-side, has 
dammed up a considerable valley — forming thereby a 
nearly circular piece of fresh water, which gives to the 
island its name. We now entered Ulfs-fiord. The main- 
land in advance of us is a mountainous peninsula which 
separates Ulfs-fiord from Lyngen-fiord. It rises in several 
places to above four thousand feet, and the general effect is 
wonderfully fine. It is the highest land in this latitude 
(69|°-70°) in the northern hemisphere. The summits are of 
course covered with perpetual snow (the height of the snow 
line, according to Von Buch, is fully three thousand feet), 
and are the feeders of numerous glaciers, which in their 
general aspect perfectly resemble those of Switzerland, if 
we except the lower level at which they occur. The first 
we saw distinctly was on Ulfs-fiord, on the west side of this 



PIPPERTIXD GLACIER. 



75 



remarkable chain. It is the Jagervandstind glacier — so 
called from a small fresh water which occurs near the foot 
of it, and very near the sea. I examined it minutely with 
a good telescope. It is fed by a neve, which fills a very ex- 
tensive rocky depression in the hills, out of which it pours 
in a broad, icy stream between ramparts of rock, and dies 
away upon the slope before it reaches the level of the lake. 
It has fully-formed moraines. 

Passing Carlso — abounding in white limestone, and 
Vando, on whose shady side snow occurs in such quan- 
tity as forcibly* to impress upon us our high northern 
position — we sailed round the magnificent promontory 
of Lyngens Klubb, or Lyngstuen, which terminates the 
peninsula already mentioned. The highest mountain is 
called the Pippertind, and from it, on the eastern side, 
descends the Pippertind glacier. The height has been 
estimated at 4000 feet 5 — it is perhaps more. The glacier 
not being nourished by very extensive snow beds, and being, 
moreover, precipitous at its lower part, dies away some 
1500 or 2000 feet above the sea. Our excellent captain, 
finding a good anchorage, and the weather being beauti- 
ful, steamed into the little bay at the foot of the glacier, 
and allowed those who chose to land for the purpose of 
examining it. I soon perceived, however, that the ex- 
pedition was likely to be a much longer one, and to be 
attended with more delay, than the captain expected, or 
„ than I could reasonably ask. The ascent of the glacier 
was, besides, not likely to be attended with much profit ; 
for the kind of glacier which I most desired to visit was 
that which reaches nearly to the sea level, where all the 
peculiarities of moving ice were likely to be best developed. 
On these accounts we returned to the ship, after a short 



76 



FINMAEKEN. 



excursion on shore. I was in hopes that we might have 
visited the glacier of Reendalen, a few miles higher up the 
Lyngen-fiord on the same side, which is stated on good 
authority to descend on a comparative level to near the 
sea-side,* but this was not found practicable under the 
circumstances. I could only, therefore, express my grati- 
tude for the goodwill which the captain had already shown 
in so far favouring my researches. 

I must not omit to mention that in passing the promon- 
tory of Lyngen we had a perfect, though somewhat distant 
view of Nord Fuglo, which rises from the open sea to a 
height of 2500 feet,| and is one of the most beautifully 
shaped islands I have ever seen. At the distance at which 
I saw it, it was scarcely possible to realise its great eleva- 
tion, the dip of the horizon partly concealing its base. I 
found it impossible by any drawing to do justice to its 
imposing form. 

The climate of the inland part of the district of Lyngen 
is well spoken of — corn ripening there, which it will not 
do at Tromso and other places on the coast. We quitted 
with regret the grand scenery of the Lyngen-fiord, which 
we crossed with the most splendid weather, and entered 
the Maursund, which has a milder character, and banks of 
charming green. Again the scenery expanded, and as 
evening approached we entered the wide Qvenanger-fiord. 
This presented several objects of interest. The small 
island of Skjaervo was the first place of call after quitting 
Maursund. It has a pretty inhabited bay. Over it towers 

* See Von Buch, i. 463. His statement (which was probably not from 
personal observation) was confirmed to me by an excellent authority, M. 
Ebeltoft, of Tromso. f Gasa Norvegica, p. 160. 



GLACIEE OF KAAGEN ISLAND. 



77 




to the westward the high Island of Kaagen, on whose 
eastern face hangs a very pretty glacier, reaching to 
within no great distance of the sea. The hills are shapely, 
and recall the forms of the mountains of Savoy on a 
small scale. A pretty extensive neve is formed in a 
hollow where the snow accumulates, and there the glacier 
proper is elaborated ; it then works its way down through 
a precipitous and narrow ravine — after which, expanding 
slightly laterally, it seems literally to hang on the slope, 
in form like a frozen tear, its very shape giving evidence 
to its tenacious plasticity. The sight of this glacier 
alone, even from a distance, with its crevasses and miniature 
moraines visible to the telescope, would have satisfied me 
that the glaciers of the north, even to the seventieth degree 
(which is exactly the latitude of Kaagen), and those of the 
Alps, as low as latitude 45°, are identical in their nature. 



78 



FINMAEKEN. 



This beautiful glacier recalled to my mind one in the Allee 
Blanche, descending from the chain of Mont Blanc, not far 
from the glacier of Miage, called Glacier de Frene. 

Opposite Skjaervo, on the mainland, is the fine group 
or jagged mountains called Qvenanger-tinderne. Their 
absolute resemblance to the Cuchullin Hills in Skye 
impressed me with the conviction that, like these, they 
must be composed of hypersthene rock, and I afterwards 
found, on Professor Keilhau's authority, that I was correct. 
Their exquisite effect in the slanting beams of the sinking 
sun I shall never forget. By a singular and happy coinci- 
dence, I saw the same scene on my southward voyage a 
few days later, at the same hour and by the same lights, 
in weather equally perfect, and thus it was doubly fixed in 
my memory. Plate IV. represents this scene. The small 
island in the foreground is Hagsteen. It appeared to be 
composed of white limestone. The upper part of the 
Qvenanger-fiord lying to the east of these mountains is 
described as being very well wooded. Von Buch compares 
the scenery to that of the lake of Lucerne ! He found 
the birch woods luxuriant at 800 feet, and only entirely 
vanishing at 1150. There are also copper works, which 
are carried on by an English company, and from which, 
as a centre, interesting excursions might unquestionably 
be made, particularly to some singular glaciers in the 
neighbourhood. One of these is at the head of the little 
inlet of the Jokuls-fiord (Jokul in Icelandic, means a 
glacier). It is the only glacier in Norway which is actually 
ivashed by the sea. The detaching and fall of masses of ice 
into the fiord occasions frequent commotions, propagated 
for a distance of miles — the waves occasioned by them 
frequently overflowing the huts of the natives. This fact 



JOKULS-FIELD — GLACIERS. 



79 



is mentioned by Von Buch,* who, however, does not appear 
himself to have visited the spot; but I received a parti- 
cular account of the position of the glacier from Mr. Crowe, 
British consul at Christiania, who is intimately acquainted 
with this part of Norway. Another glacier, described to 
me by the same gentleman, is on the north side of the 
Log-sund, in the Qvenanger-fiord. Not far from Jokuls- 
fiord is Alteid, a narrow isthmus, which lies on the regular 
boating route to Hammerfest, being crossed overland, so as 
to avoid the circuitous and often dangerous sea voyage 
round the wild peninsula, bounded by the Qvenanger-fiord 
and Stjern-sund. It is a mass of wild mountains, attaining 
a height of 3500 feet — exposing flat snow-covered surfaces, 
and pouring down glaciers on almost every side. It is called 
the Jokuls-field. It is singularly indented by deep fiords in 
all directions. These are (probably) the northmost glacier- 
bearing mountains on the old continent, except, perhaps, 
those less extensive ones in the neighbouring island of 
Seiland, mentioned by Everest. But towards the North 
Cape there are none. 

With the steamer we of course rounded the peninsula, 
and obtained views from time to time of icy masses pour- 
ing down from the field towards the sea. Instead, how- 
ever, of standing towards the shore, we took a northerly 
direction towards the isle of Loppen, where it will be 
seen by the map that we were fully exposed to the open 
sea. Spitzbergen being the first land (with the exception 
of the insignificant Bear Island), exactly 6° of latitude 
north of us. Yet here we had the most glassy sea and 
well-defined horizon, and the sun continued warm and 



* Travels, (in German) i. 473. 



80 



FINMAKKEN. 



clear throughout the entire night. It was impossible to 
have seen its midnight aspect more favourably, for no 
land interfered to diminish its apparent elevation, and I 
was here almost in the highest latitude which I reached, 
viz., 70° 20'. At midnight we were near the solitary isle 
of Loppen, where lives, however, a substantial and friendly 
merchant and proprietor, who with his family came on 
board. At eleven p. m., according to our but imperfect 
reckoning of time (so fast do we run eastwards through 
the narrow degrees of longitude), Leslie's photometer on 
the deck stood at 20°; at half-past eleven it fell to 14°, the 
air being 55|°. About a quarter of an hour later the ther- 
mometer fell to 50°, with a gentle breeze from the open 
sea; the photometer shewed first 10°, then 12°, then 14°. 
Some faint cirro-stratus clouds near the sun's disc clearing 
away, it rose to 17°, 19£°, 20°, and finally 22°, about mid- 
night, or very little later — the sun's disc being now free of 
any distinguishable cloud, and the photometer standing on 
an insulated barrel on the deck, therefore almost free of 
extraneous reflection. The glacier-clad mountains of the 
Bergs-fiord were bathed in the horizontal ruddy light as we 
stood across the open sea to touch at Hasvig, on the island 
of Soro, which was our utmost northern latitude. 

The Bergs-fiord mountains just mentioned form the 
seaward part of the peninsula of the Jokuls-field. The 
principal glacier which descends from them was described 
to me by a gentleman on board perfectly acquainted with 
the locality, as one of the most remarkable, and, at the 
same time, the most accessible on the coast. It reaches, 
he assured us, within a quarter of an hour's walk of the 
sea, and there is a safe anchorage in the Bergs-fiord, being 
almost land-locked by the large island of Silden. This 



GLACIERS OF NUB-FIORD. 



81 



was exactly the sort of glacier I was anxious to visit, and 
I hoped that upon our return voyage the captain" might 
have taken the inner passage, and given me an opportunity 
of landing at a far less expense of time than our visit to 
the Pippertind glacier must have required ; but I saw that 
there were objections, and 1 consequently lost this interest- 
ing sight. 

The sound, which extends from Silden Island towards the 
Alten-fiord, is called the Stjerno Sound, as it separates the 
mainland from an island of that name. In our northern 
voyage we passed through it in the night, and with a 
strong head wind ; but on our return I was enabled to 
examine closely the features of the snow-crowned coast. 
The most important glaciers succeeding those of the Bergs- 
fiord occur in the Nus-fiord, a small inlet of this Stjerno 
Sound ; they also descend from the Jokuls-field. From an 
inspection of the drawing (See Plate V.), it will be seen that 
these glaciers have the true alpine character, being outlets 
of extensive snow-fields whose general level exceeds 2000 
feet — the glaciers descending the natural ravines in the 
midst of slopes of the brightest verdure. They are accom- 
panied, as usual, by moraines, or trails of rocky masses 
carried forward on the surface of the ice by its progressive 
motion, which also produces crevasses in the usual way, 
which are revealed in summer by the complete fusion on 
the surface of the covering of snow. It will be seen that 
one of the glaciers of the Nus-fiord descends to within a 
short distance of the sea. The view is so far incorrect that 
it probably cannot be seen from any one spot, at least not 
within the angular space represented, being taken (like 
most of the others) during the progress of the steamer. I 
in this instance took advantage of the change of position 

G 



82 



FINMARKEN. 



to include within the drawing more of the two principal 
glaciers than I could distinctly see at any one time. The 
larger inlet of Oxe-fiord lies farther to the east. It is a 
deep indentation into the mountainous and snow-capped 
peninsula which I am describing 5 but it does not, so far as 
I observed, show any true glaciers, or at least they do not 
reach a low level. The cheerful beauty of the exquisitely 
green hills is very attractive ; and when the steamer turned 
into a creek without one apparent trace of human habitation, 
I was reminded of the character of some of the deeply 
indented lochs of the west of Inverness-shire, distinguished 
by the abundant pasture which their hills afford; only 
here, the sense of utter loneliness was still more oppressive. 
Whilst wondering what could be our destination, as we 
steamed up the inlet, we suddenly turned a headland, 
which disclosed — in a sunny, sheltered nook beneath a 
steep mountain, and near the opening of a large ravine — 
the ample establishment of a substantial Kjobmand's (mer- 
chant's) dwelling-house, store-houses, and jetty, displaying, 
as usual, the utmost neatness and apparent comfort. It is a 
regular steam-boat station, and is the only dwelling of any 
kind for miles and miles of coast. A flag was gaily flying 
at the top of a staff. Our arrival was greeted by repeated 
cannon shots, whilst a well-sized and well-manned boat 
pulled from shore, bringing a large party of well-dressed 
gentlemen and still gayer ladies, which we found to include 
the proprietor of Loppen, who had come on board on our 
northward voyage. The apparition of such unequivocal 
proofs of civilized life in the midst of the wilds and snows 
of the arctic circle had an effect not a little amusing, and 
at the same time delightful. 

The island of Stjerno, on the other side of the sound, 



SEILAND— ALTEN-FIOED. 



83, 



contains no glaciers, and appears nearly continuous with 
the island of Seiland, from which it is separated, according 
to the charts, by a very narrow strait. Seiland closes the 
entrance of the great Al ten-fiord, with its lofty ridges, 
which, however, show no snow on that, their eastern si de ; 
but on the opposite side, facing Hammerfest, it appears, 
from the narrative of Mr. Everest, that the mountains rise 
to the height of 3400 English feet, of which the upper 600 
feet are constantly covered by snow ; but it is probable 
that its extent is too limited to furnish examples of true 
glaciers. The islands of Stjerno and Seiland present the 
same geological features with the great peninsula of the 
Jokuls-field, of which they form the continuation — the 
prevalent gneiss formation being interspersed with out-- 
breaks of hypersthene rock. The town of Hammerfest, 
the northmost in the world, is placed on the little island of 
Qualo, divided only by a narrow strait from that of Seiland. 

It was a beautiful morning when we steamed up the 
Alten-fiord. The little village of Talvig, on the mainland, 
on our right, is situated on the green shores of a pleasant 
bay. And here is a church, the parochial centre of a vast 
district, including the comparatively populous environs of 
Kaa-fiord, where the management of important copper- 
works employs a great many hands. I afterwards learnt 
with regret that the clergyman of Talvig was a member of 
the Storthing, or Norwegian parliament, and was not only 
now at Christiania engaged in his political duties, without 
having appointed any one to do regular duty in his place, 
but that he had actually been absent the whole of the 
previous winter, on the plea that if he did not go south by 

* The published Travels in Norway by this gentleman contain useful 
and interesting observations, too hastily and concisely thrown together. 



84 



K1NMAKKEN. 



the latest steam-ship in autumn, he should arrive too late 
in spring for the opening of the session ! 

It was still blowing hard when we reached Bosekop, a 
water station at the eastern side of the entrance to Kaa-fiord, 
which is the inmost bight of the Alten-fiord. It was at 
Bosekop that the French expedition wintered, which was 
dispatched to Scandinavia some years ago on a scientific 
mission; and several interesting results of their journey 
were obtained during their long stay in the Alten-fiord, in 
particular, observations on magnetism, meteorology, and 
the aurora borealis, by MM. Bravais and Martins. The 
former gentleman made a very interesting examination of 
marine terraces, or ancient sea-beaches, which are traceable 
for a great distance along this coast (similar to those which 
I have mentioned as conspicuous at Throndhjem), with this 
remarkable peculiarity, that they are not continuous at the 
same exact level above the present sea, but incline in such 
a way as to shew that the coast has not only been raised 
bodily out of the water, but in an unequal manner, the part 
towards Hammerfest having emerged less than the part 
towards Bosekop. I cannot but mention with regret, that, 
considering the enviable facilities for making observations 
enjoyed by the officers and savans of the expedition, it 
would appear that they made but inconsiderable acquaint- 
ance with the regions they might easily have explored. 
For example, I have not been able to find that a single 
Norwegian glacier was visited by any of the party, though 
I may have overlooked it, owing to the diffuse and irregular 
manner of publication. An exploration, not only of the 
immediate environs of the Alten-fiord, but of the imposing 
mass of the Jokulsfield, and the interior of the Qvenanger- 
fiord, with its hypersthenic formations, its interesting clima- 



KAA-FIORD— HIGH TEMPERATURE. 



85 



tology, and important glaciers, might certainly have been 
looked for from an elaborately fitted out and national scien- 
tific expedition. Instead of this, they appear to have spent 
a period quite disproportioned to their physical interest on 
the inhospitable shores of Spitzbergen. 

The interior of the Alten-fiord, within the headland of 
Bosekop, is called Kaa-fiord (pronounced Ko-fiord), and as 
we steamed up to the embouchure of the river, which joins 
the sea at its head, we had a very pleasing prospect of 
bold hills on either side (rising, in the case of the Haldi, 
to 2944 feet), with green and sheltered valleys, well 
wooded in some places with pine, and here and there 
showing a cottage or two with enclosures. On the right 
are situated the well-known copperworks ; and just beyond, 
a church built expressly for the workmen of this extensive 
establishment by Mr. Crowe of Christiania, who formerly 
acted for the Alten Mining Company. The convenient 
house of Mr. Thomas, the present manager of the works, is 
placed on a pleasant slope, still higher up the creek. The 
steamer landed us almost close to the house, where we 
were kindly received by Mr. Carey and Mr. Wilson — Mr. 
Thomas being about to visit Hammerfest by the very 
vessel which had brought us to Kaa-fiord. The wind still 
blew strongly from the interior towards the coast, but with 
a temperature so mild, and in the presence of a sun so 
bright, that I was transported in imagination to the shores 
of the Mediterranean, for the peculiar softness of the air 
resembled nothing so much as that of the Scirocco of the 
south of France. And the thermometer confirmed these 
sensations. At 2 p.m., on the 15th July, it stood at 76°, 
the Photometer (Leslie's) at the same time marking from 77° 
to 85°, placed on grass freely exposed to the wind. Gn a 



86 



FJNMARKEN. 



surface of white siliceous gravel, it marked 3° higher ; but 
as the zero of the instrument shewed this day 3° too low, 
the greatest effect of radiation on the grass may be taken 
at 88°, and on gravel at 91°. The sky was bright with 
passing clouds. At 3^ p.m. the temperature of the air was 
7 7°. 7, and at 4| p.m. 80°. So sultry was the air, that it 
seemed to threaten a storm, and we felt quite disposed to 




KAA-FIORX) FROM MR. THOMAS'S HOUSE. 

await the cool of the evening to make any excursion. It 
required some stretch of imagination to comprehend the 
fact stated to us by Mr. Carey, that the lawn in front of 
the house, now covered with waving grass, nearly ready 
for the scythe, was still covered with the last winter's snow 
almost to the door only one short month before ! 

The aspect of the fiord from Mr. Thomas's house was 
now one of genial and quiet beauty— the hills all green, 



METEOROLOGY OF KAA-FIORD. 



87 



with but a few patches of snow lingering near their tops, 
masses of natural Scotch fir woods, relieved by birch trees 
in full leaf, pasture fields well enclosed and interspersed 
with cottages, of which the inhabitants are thriving and 
well clothed, several gardens, including flowers as well as 
vegetables, a well sized church, with an almost English 
looking spire (for which, as already observed, the com- 
munity is indebted to Consul Crowe) — and beneath all, the 
placid waters of the fiord, whose outline is broken by several 
picturesque headlands, and which is defended from all 
storms by the outlying islands of Stjerno and Seiland. 

Mr. Thomas has, with praiseworthy perseverance and 
zeal, directed the formation of accurate registers of the 
thermometer and barometer in this very interesting and 
remarkable spot, the latitude of which is 69° 57', and longi- 
tude 23° 2' east of Greenwich, and the results have been 
published in part in the proceedings of the British Associa- 
tion ; but it is still to be desired that a synopsis of the whole 
should be carefully drawn up, and the index corrections 
of the instruments specified. Amongst other things to be 
wished is a comparison of the mean barometric pressure 
with that in lower latitudes, and there can be no doubt that 
this may be obtained from the comparison of the Alten 
barometer with those of the French expedition ; and again, 
a comparison of the mean temperature of the air for the 
whole year, with that of the earth deduced from good 
springs, of which there are several. One of these is 
situated in a cellar under Mr. Thomas's house, and is 
stated to vary little in the course of the year. I observed 
its temperature with a good thermometer, having little or 
no index error, to be 39°.o on the evening of the 16th July. 
Another good spring, near Quaenvig, some miles from Kaa- 



88 



FINMARKEN. 



fiord, but also near the level of the sea, or rather about 300 
feet above it, gave 37°.8 on the evening of the 15th July, 
which agrees well with the observations near Tromsd, 
recorded in the commencement of this chapter. It is hence 
exceedingly probable that the mean temperature of the 
ground at least is 38°, whereas the mean temperature of the 
air, from observations at 9 a.m. and 9 p.m., continued for 11 
years, give 33°. 7, or above 4° less. This important differ- 
ence has been recognised in high latitudes since the time 
of Wahlenberg. 

I shall here add a few particulars which give a general 
idea of" the climate of this part of Norway. For eleven 
years (1837-48), the average temperature at 9 a.m. was 
34°.50; at 9 p.m., 32°.83 ; mean, 33°.66. Von' Buch esti- 
mated it, solely from the upper level of the Pine (640 feet 
above the sea), at nearly 1° Reaumur, or 34°. 25 Fahren- 
heit, a remarkable coincidence. The mean temperature of 
February, which is decidedly the coldest month, is 15°.4; 
and of August, which is usually the hottest, 54°. 3. This 
range is, however, small compared with the actual extremes 
on particular days, which I find to be the following during 
three years for which they are specified, but of which those 
for 1848 only are certainly taken with self-registering 
instruments : — 

1846. 1847. 1848. 

Maximum 83°.3 84°.7 86°.9 

Minimum - 14.8 — 3.1 — 20.2 

Range 98.1 87.8 107.1 

ffc.m&e, -it.a'ppeas^ that tke tfr^-irrenieter farefy, ilew, f&Us 
bfek)\Vth€L fiiKO o^F&hr&mSeft, whilst there is not, perhaps, 
another part of the earth's surface on this parallel where 



T^viST) s£y y>*^ 



EIDE TO BOSEKOP. 



89 



mercury does not freeze in winter. The fall of rain and 
snow in these three years was only 18.18, 16.81, and 17.19 
inches. 

The heat of the day being past, I readily accepted an 
invitation to ride along with a gentleman connected with 
the mining establishment, and a lady resident in the 
neighbourhood, to Bosekop and the Alten river. It gave 
me an opportunity which I much desired of seeing some- 
thing of the natural features and productions of the coun- 
try, and also, as I understood, a fair example of the faci- 
lities of internal communication. A rude horse track 
amongst trees, or over rocks, interrupted by rivers and 
swamps, and often nearly undistinguishable, conducted us 
to Bosekop in 3^ hours (though we were not ill mounted), 
whence we had come by steam in the morning probably in 
less than one. Leaving Kaa-fiord about 8 p.m., we first 
crossed by a bridge a contraction of a sort of lagoon, 
into which the sea water runs at its head. The glen, 
which extends landwards in the same direction, strikingly 
resembles a Highland glen, and I longed to explore it, 
but our road lay in quite a different direction. Having 
passed the bridge, we ascended a steep gravel bank, dotted 
over with fir trees, and adorned with a beautiful plant in 
flower, which one of my companions told me was the 
Linncea Borealis. These flat-topped gravelly hillocks are 
evidently accumulated and levelled by the presence of a 
mass of nearly still water. They are the commencement 
of that interesting chain of terraces, sometimes accumu- 
lated in hollows, at other times abraded from the face of 
projecting headlands, which extend at intervals nearly to 

* See reports of British Association for 1849 and following years. 



90 



F1NMARK.EN. 



Hammerfest, and which have been minutely described by 
M. Bravais,* and more lately by Mr. Chambers.! The 
height of the highest of these above the present sea level, 
is here 240 English feet, according to the latter authority, 
and a second occurs about half way up the same gravel 
slopes. This modern accumulation does not extend very 
far. We soon came to the solid rock, over which a deep 
and rapid torrent falls headlong, in a very picturesque 
cascade, though of no great height. This same river has 
to be crossed or forded at a short distance higher up, 
near where it issues clear and strong from a lake of 
several miles in length. The river was very full, on 
account of the still continued melting of the snow in the 
interior. I felt little disposed to attempt the ford, which 
it was clear would nearly or quite compel the horses to 
swim, and after some delay a skiff was obtained, manned 
by a Quaen, who was employed, I believe, in charcoal- 
burning in the woods. It was with some anxiety that 
I looked forward to our return next day, when this 
Charon might no longer be at hand, the ford being almost 
within hearing of the cataract below. 

Brushwood of alder concealed, except by glimpses, the 
lake on our right, which stretches eastwards for, I believe, 
several miles, having wooded and picturesque banks. An 
excursion which had been planned for me the following day 
to its farther extremity, unfortunately did not take place, or 
I should not have been contented with so scanty a view of 
a scene altogether remarkable, considering the latitude in 
which it occurs. Its character is quiet lonely beauty ; ex- 

* Voyages en Scandinavie, &c. — Geogr. Phys. i. 57. 
■J- Chambers's Edinburgh Journal, and " Tracings of the North of 
Europe" (privately printed), 1850. 



ALTEN COMPARED WITH THE HIGHLANDS. 



91 



tended woods of well-0-rown Scotch firs and birches clothe 
the banks (the alder being mostly confined to the lower and 
marshy grounds), and climb to a considerable height on the 
bold rocky face of a ridge of hills rising abruptly to the 
north. As we rode by devious tracks amongst the fir-trees 
in the balmy air of a summer's night, my thoughts were 
once more involuntarily recalled to home scenery, and in 
particular, my recollection fixed upon the sequestered Loch 
Affaric, in the very centre of Invemess-shire, as possessing 
a character strikingly similar to the view before me. The 
two scenes are, while I write, perfectly present to my mind's 
eye; and though, of course, I can recall important diffe- 
rences, I believe that every one who sees both will be struck 
with the similarity of character and form, both in the 
scenery and the vegetation. I must, however, observe one 
striking difference which I could not but remark, although 
no botanist — I mean the total absence of all plants of the 
heath tribe, including the common ling. The ground was 
chiefly covered in the rough places where grass did not 
readily grow, with the bilberry and crowberry of our moors, 
and here and there in abundance the universal " forget- 
me-not" in full flower. Amongst the peculiar plants, the 
moltebeer was one of the most abundant ; it grows in damp 
places. By and bye we nearly reached the sea again at 
Quaenvig (or the Quaen's bay, vig having the same signifi- 
cation as uig in the names of many Highland inlets, as, for 
instance, in the north-west of Skye), where are some cottages 
and green fields upon the slopes of gravel terraces corres- 
ponding to those already mentioned, and which here are 
very conspicuous from the sea, appearing to close in the 
bay with a sort of natural rampart. * 

* See the wood-cut on the nest page. 



92 



FINMARKEN. 



At and beyond Quaenvig, the fixed rocks present well- 
marked grooves and flirtings similar to those occasioned by 
modern glaciers. They are best marked on the beds of lime- 
stone, which here alternate with metamorphic slates, and the 
general direction appears to be between N.and N. N. W.(true), 
subject, however, to local variation, depending on the con- 




TE It RACES AT QUAENVIG. 

figuration of the ground ; and this agrees sufficiently well 
with Mr. Chambers's observations near Bosekop. 

After crossing the next ridge by tracks which would 
have scared any but Norwegian horses, we descended upon 
Bosekop, first through a stunted wood, then through green 
pastures sloping towards the north, from which quarter the 
sun shone in our faces over the heights of Seiland. Here, 
for the first time, I saw a custom very characteristic of the 
climate. Rome cattle were reposing to the leeward of a 



BOSEKOP— MIDNIGHT ACTIVITY. 



93 



smouldering fire of turf, in order to defend themselves by 
means of the smoke from the ceaseless sting of the dreadful 
mosquitos which infest these countries in summer. Every 
night these fires are regularly lighted to ensure some repose 
for the herds, and it was not a little curious, in weather so 
warm as it was even now, near midnight, to see the poor 
animals closing round the embers. It is needless to add 
that we ourselves did not escape these torments. I had 
fortunately provided myself before leaving home with a 
large gauze veil, in which I wrapped my whole head, and 
I suffered on this occasion less than I expected, notwith- 
standing the numbers, size, and ferocity of the assailants. 

It was half-past eleven when we reached Bosekop, 
where we were kindly entertained by a gentleman and his 
sister who keep house there. They are of English, or 
rather Scotch extraction, but have been for many genera- 
tions settled in Finmarken. It was past twelve when we 
had finished tea ; but it was not here that we had arranged 
to sleep, and Mr. Cole, of Kaa-fiord, who was my com- 
panion and guide, started along with me to proceed yet 
some miles farther, to -the mining establishment of Reipas, 
a dependency of the Alten Copper Company. So little are 
day and. night regarded, that no person at Bosekop seemed 
to think of sleeping, and our host very politely accompanied 
us on horseback to our destination, and even proposed to 
make a detour to show me a fine view, which I desired to 
postpone on the very real plea of now requiring rest. We 
passed some farm and cottar's houses on the way, and there 
we found every one astir and busy — some labouring in the 
fields — others constructing a house out of logs of timber. 
They work all night to avoid the sultry heat of noon ; but 
as far as I could learn few people take much regular or 



94 



FINMARKEN. 



continued rest at this season ; they say that there is time 
enough to sleep in winter! In fact, on our return next 
day at the height of noon, we found the same people 
engaged in the very same employments ! 

The space between Bosekop, on the Alten-fiord, and 
the Alten river, is chiefly alluvial sand.° I was disappointed 
with the view of the valley of the Alten, though the river 
is undoubtedly grand and of alarming rapidity. It overflows 
its banks in all directions in spring, and an extensive 
plain, covered with stunted willows and marshy hollows is 
devastated by its unchecked meanderings. Having crossed 
it in a flat-bottomed skiff, we traversed a wide gravelly 
space of this description, and passed many pools, showing 
that the river had swept over the entire plain during the 
melting of the snows. We were obliged, to my regret, to 
rouse the family at Eeipas in order to obtain lodging, being 
now between 1 and 2 o'clock a.m. — a process not very 
easy, but which was submitted to with great good humour. 
After some further delay, I got to bed, and our obliging 
host of Bosekop took his departure homewards at that late 
hour. 

It is evident, from my description of the banks of 
the Alten, that Eeipas must be placed in a very nest of 
mosquitos. And so indeed it proved. But for my veil I 
should have passed a night of torment, and even with it I 

* It was here that in 1850 a hase of about 1200 fathoms was measured 
by MM. Lindhagen and Klouman in connection with the measurement of 
an arc of the meridian from Hammerfest to Tornea. This is only the nor- 
thern division of the largest arc ever measured on the earth's surface, per- 
formed under the direction of M. Struve, and extending through 25° 20' of 
latitude, from Ismail on the Danube to Hammerfest. The Norwegian part 
of the arc, from Hammerfest to Kautokeino, extends 1° 46' 



RETURN TO KAA-PIORD— GEOLOGY. 



95 



had great difficulty in falling asleep, from the loudness of 
their hum, the sharpness of their bite even through the 
veil, and the broad daylight which, as usual, streamed in at 
all the windows. It appeared to me difficult to imagine 
that custom could reconcile any one to such a continuous 
infliction. Yet summer is a period so ardently desired by 
all — whether natives or strangers — who dwell in these high 
latitudes, that the plague of flies is, perhaps, considered 
an insignificant deduction from their gratification. More 
paradoxical still it does appear to any one but an angler, 
that the charms of sport should be sufficient to induce 
English gentlemen every year to spend their days and 
nights an unprotected prey to these savage insects ; and 
most unexpected of all, to find a delicate English lady 
surrendering herself to her husband's passion for fishing so 
completely, as to become a willing prisoner in this terrible 
locality. 

Eefreshed by some hours' sound sleep, and having 
breakfasted at a late hour with the hospitable inmates of 
Eeipas, we recrossed the Alten and returned by Bosekop to 
Kaa-fiord under the oppressive heat of the mid-day sun, 
rendered still more relaxing by a sultriness in the air which 
seemed to betoken a storm, which, no doubt, took place 
somewhere, though we came in for but a few large drops 
of rain and a temporary gloom. The thermometer rose to 
83° or even 84°. I was so fatigued that T reluctantly gave 
up the proposed excursion to the head of the lake in the 
Kaa-fiord valley, to which I have before referred. I walked 
instead with Mr. Carey, late in the evening, to the copper 
works, and the entrance to the galleries of the copper mines, 
and collected some specimens of the ore and of the chief 
varieties of rock. The ore is principally the common yellow 



9G 



FINMAKKEN. 



copper pyrites. The rocks consist of clay-slate, limestone, 
and hypersthene rock, to which may be added a peculiar 
sort of sandstone or granular quartz, which, according to 
Von Buch and Keilhau, succeeds the gneissic formation 
near Talvig on the west, and Altnses on the eastern shore 
Of the Alten-fiord, and extends a long way into the in- 
terior, forming the summit of the Nuppe Vara, a moun- 
tain of 2700 English feet. The limestone is crystalline, 
but not usually hard. The hypersthene rock, or hypers- 
thenic greenstone, is a mixture of that mineral with white 
felspar, and the compound possesses in a high degree the 
toughness which gives to it its characteristic name. It is 
smaller in grain than most of the hypersthenes of Skye, but 
resembles the well-known rock of Balta Island, near Unst, 
in Shetland. The geology of this part of Norway has, 
from its metallurgical importance, naturally attracted more 
attention than that of most equally remote regions ; but 
the relations of the rocks are intricate and obscure, — 
therefore, not to be lightly judged of by casual visitors. 
The rocks in the vicinity of Kaa-fiord are all more or less 
moutonnees or rounded and scored by external abrasion. 
The wood-cut, page 86, which gives an idea of the scene 
from Mr. Thomas's house, shows one of these bosses near the 
foreground. The promontory stretching into the bay in 
the middle distance is called Oskarnses, and shows plain 
marks of the terraces already referred to. 

The chief population of the Alten district are Quaens. 
A stranger has some difficulty to understand their relation 
to the Laplanders, with whom they are easily confounded, 
both being often called Finns. It is indeed in Finmarken 
itself that the Lapps are most frequently, but inaccurately 
described as Finns. The Quaens, however, (who, like the 



QUAENS AND LAPPS. 



97 



Lapps, are foreigners,) properly come from Finland, whilst 
the Lapps belong principally to the opposite or western side 
of the Gulf of Bothnia. Their appearance, (excepting, 
however, their dress), their habits, and even their language, 
are essentially distinct. The Lapp is dwarfish in the ex- 
treme, and the form of the countenance resembles that of 
the Tartar tribes. The Quaen, or Finlander, or Esthonian, 
with some features in common, is moderately tall, and has 
a skull more of the usual European type. Their habits are 
absolutely diverse : The Quaen being domestic and fond 
of agriculture, the Lapp essentially nomadic and incap- 
able of steady labour ; so much is this the case, that some 
writers consider the distinction as referring rather to occu- 
pation than to race. Of the capacity of the Quaens some 
difference of opinion exists. Von Buch considers them to 
have done much more for Finmarken than the Norwegians 
themselves, and that they are even now its most civilized 
inhabitants, and by far its best agriculturists. The report 
of the Alten Company's officers is less favourable, but it is 
quite possible that mining industry is unsuited to their 
tastes and habits. Their language differs as much from the 
Lappish as Swedish does from German. Though their cos- 
tume is similar, their houses, substantially built of logs, are 
roomy, comfortable, and of course permanent, unlike the 
Lapps. The appearance of the Quaens in Norway is be- 
lieved not to date earlier than the commencement of the last 
century. ■ They are stated by Von Buch to have been driven 
out of their native country by the wars of Charles XII. 

The morning of my departure from the hospitality of 
Kaa-fiord was characterised by an unclouded sun and a 
rapidly rising temperature. As early as 8 a.m., the ther- 
mometer, perfectly shaded, stood at 74°. 5 — the photometer 

ii 



98 



FINMARKEN. 



on the grass at 79°. I gladly avoided a repetition of the 
sultry heat of the previous days by gaining the friendly 
deck of the Prinds Gustav, now on its return southwards 
from Hammerfest. I was now to part from the companions 
with whom I had made the journey from Christiania, and 
who were about to cast their lines on the Alten, unmoved 
by my reports of its mosquitos. I could indeed have spent 
agreeably the interval of fourteen days between the voy- 
ages of the steamer in exploring the valleys of Finmarken, 
and visiting the glaciers ; but I must in that case have sur- 
rendered the chance of seeing the total eclipse of the sun 
at Bergen on the 28th July, which was one main object of 
my journey. Of my return voyage I need say nothing, as 
I have already incorporated from my notes what was neces- 
sary to complete the description of the whole coast. The 
magnificent weather which we had enjoyed during all the 
time that I was within the arctic circle did not desert us 
until our arrival at the Throndhj em-fiord. We saw the 
sun first sink under the northern horizon on the night of 
the 21st July, in crossing the great Folden-fiord. It was 
one of the most gorgeous sunsets I ever witnessed, and the 
waters of the fiord burned with the reflection of the golden 
clouds ; but it was the harbinger of a change which speedily 
took place. 



CHAPTER V. 



BERGEN. 

LEAVE THRONDHJEM — MOLDE — AALESUND — HORNELN — ENTRANCE OF SOGNE-FIORD — 
GLACIER MARKINGS — SINGULAR PASSAGE OF ALVERSUND — ARRIVAL AT BERGEN — 
ASPECT AND SITUATION OF THE TOWN — CLIMATE— TOTAL ECLIPSE OF THE SUN ON 
THE 28TH JULY 1851 — ANCIENT TOTAL ECLIPSE AT STIKLASTAD. 

After a pause of less than two days at Throndhjem, 
during which I again experienced the kindest and most 
unaffected hospitality, T resumed once more my berth 
on board the Prinds Gustav, and we steered down the long 
Throndhj em-fiord in murky drizzling weather for Bergen. 
This portion of the coast, offers, on the whole, fewer grand 
and singular scenes than did our more northern voyage. I 
shall therefore not describe it in detail ; but only mention 
a few more noticeable points. Christiansund is a clean, 
thriving, mercantile place, abounding in tall wooden ware- 
houses, which project into the sea on all sides — the town 
being built chiefly on islands which seem to enclose com- 
pletely a small basin, in which the shipping lies secure 
from every wind. Some hours later we reached Molde, a 
large village, placed near some of the finest scenery in 
Norway, and whose situation is pleasing and striking in a 
high degree. It is situated on the north-western shore 



100 



BERGEN. 



of the Molde-fiord, one of the numerous irregular arms of 
the sea, which intersect the whole country between Thron- 
dhjem and Bergen, and which make a land journey between 
those towns well nigh impracticable. Molde is a scattered 
village, of no great population, stretching along a coast but 
slightly rescued from the primitive forest which covers hill 
and dale in all directions with its dark green hues, and 
gives an air of protection and warmth to the little town 
thus spread out towards the sun. The fiord is broken up 
(as usual) by numerous islands of all sizes, and its shores 
are indented with endless ramifications of inlets, so that 
land and water seem inextricably mixed together. Still, 
the main fiord has an imposing effect from its extent. The 
coast nearly opposite Molde is characterised by noble 
mountainous forms, which mark the entrance of Romsdal, 
which passes for one of the most picturesque valleys in 
Norway. We saw, in particular, the Eomsdal horn, which 
rises to a height of about 4000 feet. A well-known and 
striking route leads by the foot of it to the southern de- 
clivity of the Dovre-field at Lie, near Tofte. 

From Molde to Aalesund, the next chief place on the 
coast, we sailed through channels everywhere defended from 
the ocean by numerous islands. The views inland disclosed 
once more snowy peaks in the distance, belonging to the 
great boss or mountain group which characterises the 
northern part of the Bergen stift, and which, from the moun- 
tains of Justedal and Lodal, give rise to, perhaps, the most 
extensive group of glaciers in Scandinavia. The little port 
of Aalesund is placed at the extremity of one of those 
strangely straggling peninsulas common on this coast, and 
surrounded by countless islands, rocks, and promontories. 
It has the appearance of a thriving place, with its bright 



AALESUND— STADT— HORNELN. 



101 



red-tiled houses interspersed with trees and gardens of the 
richest green, its tall warehouses, and the masts of nume- 
rous trading vessels appearing over the land in its well- 
sheltered inner harbour. The good fortune of our voyage 
had not even yet deserted us. It was a balmy evening, and 
all objects glowed under the influence of a deeply-tinted 
sunset. The entire population seemed to have turned out 
to enjoy it; at least one half, in boats of every size, 
swarmed round the steamer — the other half being seated 
on grassy knolls all along the shore, gazing at the busy 
scene of embarkation, for we took in many passengers 
and a quantity of goods. But though there was a great 
deal of crowding round the ship, and no small turmoil in 
disposing of the cargo, not an angry or rude word was 
spoken. As on every similar occasion, I saw reason to' 
admire the native politeness, and good-humour of even 
the humblest classes of this truly respectable and amiable 
people. Opposite to Aalesund, and at other places along 
the coast, I observed two remarkably well-marked terraces 
or ancient beaches, one of which I estimated (rudely, from 
the steamer) to be 120, the other about 50 feet above the 
sea level. 

During the night we rounded the promontory of Stadt, 
a point which projects farther into the sea than any other 
part of the coast, and which is dreaded in bad weather. I 
was called, at a very early hour in the morning, to see the 
immensely high and precipitous cape of Horneln, which is 
considered, I believe, as one of the highest, if not the highest 
sea-cliff in Norway. It forms part of the Island of Bre- 
mangerland, and the channel through which we pass is so 
narrow as scarcely to give sufficient space to form a judg- 
ment of the height of the rock. By the grey tints of 



102 



BERGEN. 



morning, affording but little light and shade, it was not 
seen to advantage. Opposite to Bremangerland a very ex- 
tensive double-branched fiord runs inland, and the whole 
country is intersected, in a remarkable manner, with 
mountain ridges, arms of the sea, and fresh-water lakes, 
rendering it very inconvenient to traverse, but, as I was 
assured by an English gentleman on board, who had visited 
it, highly romantic. He specified Bredeims Vand, in parti- 
cular, as one of the finest lakes. This district is called, col- 
lectively, "Nord-fiord," although there is no individual fiord 
bearing that name. Its valleys receive the outgoings of the 
snowy plateaux of the Justedal mountains, in the form of 
glaciers, of which several are marked in Munch's map, at 
the head of the tributary streams of the Indvik-fiord. They 
are, so far as I know, as yet undescribed. 

In the course of the forenoon we passed the opening of 
the great Sogne-fiord, the most ramified in Norway, stretch- 
ing landward not less than 110 English miles, to the head 
of the Lyster-fiord, one of its farthest tributaries. Having 
heard much of the surprising and gloomy cliffs of the 
Sogne-fiord, I was disappointed to find its entrance tame, 
undulating, and without much interest, whilst the higher 
mountains were too remote, or too much concealed by 
the intermediate hills, to produce a favourable effect. The 
character of the rocks and islets of the fiord was, how- 
ever, worthy of notice, though far from picturesque. They 
present to an excessive degree the forms of roches moutonnees 
— the bare grassless surfaces, dome-like or undulating, 
in tedious monotony, so characteristic of glacial action, 
with the usual accompaniments of flutings and polished 
channels. The material of the rocks renders these im- 
pressions of external friction still more striking, for it is 



GLACIER MARKINGS ON THE SOGNE-FIORD. 



103 



chiefly a coarse conglomerate, of which every part, the 
boulders as well as the cement, is cut as by the lapidary's 
wheel. The wonderful extent over which these appear- 
ances here occur, and the unsparing severity with which 
the natural inequalities of the most obdurate rocks have 
been smoothed down, is strikingly impressive, when we 
couple it with the fact that if glaciers really were once much 
wider spread than at present, this vast chasm was the natural 
outlet of an icy flood drawn from a more extensive origin 
than any other existing in the north of Europe.* 

* These remarks were written without any reference to the following 
passage, in which, more than a quarter of a century since, Professor Esmark 
clearly described these phenomena near the embouchure of the Sogne-fiord, 
and attributed them to the action of glaciers : — " On this rock there seemed 
to me proofs of the powerful operation of ice. I found that the precipices 
on the side of the mountain next the sound were several [ hundred ? ] feet in 
height, and perfectly perpendicular, and though they were composed, as I 
have mentioned, of boulders cemented together, they were perfectly even and 
smooth. If these precipices had been the effect of rents, attended with suc- 
cessive masses tumbling down, then the boulders adjoining the rent must 
have been found adhering, sometimes to the one and sometimes to the other 
of the separated masses (those which have fallen into the sea are no more to 
be seen), and in that case, the boulders left in one mass must have left a 
mark of itself in the corresponding one. This, however, was by no means 
the the rock which remained was perfectly smooth, and had the 

appearance as if these boulders had been cut across by a sharp knife. I can 
explain this phenomenon in no other way than by supposing that large masses 
of ice, pressing through the sound, have cut these precipices lying parallel 
to the direction of the sound." — Esmark on the Geological History of the 
Earth, in Jameson's Journal, October 1826 to April 1827, page 120. The 
phrase in the above passage, "large masses of ice pressing through the 
sound," might appear ambiguous, as it might apply to drift ice as well as to 
the ice of glaciers. But that glaciers were intended is plain, not only from 
the context generally, but from the sentence with which this description is 
introduced, as follows : — " I shall farther mention the supposed effects of 
glacier ice, in another part of Norway, at the level of the sea." 



104 



BERGEN. 



The continuation of the scenery towards Bergen pre- 
sents the same peculiarities in a still more emphatic degree, 
and is, I firmly believe, quite unparalleled. For a space 
of nearly 50 English miles, we navigated through a series 
of inlets which penetrate in all directions a low, hare, 
rocky land, partly island, partly continent, nowhere rising 
but to a very small height above the sea, and so monotonous 
in character, and destitute of any long reaches, or natural 
landmarks, as to seem to require an almost superhuman 
instinct for its pilotage. It is consequently regarded, I 
believe, as the most difficult navigation in this part of the 
world. We had a special pilot on board for the purpose of 
conducting us through it, and we observed that the admir- 
able pilots — to whom the whole coast from Throndhjem to 
Hammerfest was as familiar as any highway in England to 
a coachman of the old school — were watching with curiosity 
and admiration the skill of their colleague, who extricated 
us with perfect composure from this enchanted labyrinth. 
The pilots are, naturally, the most important persons on 
board, for on them the responsibility of the ship is entirely 
laid. The navigation of the Norwegian coast, regularly 
performed by these excellent steamers, is not less than 1260 
English miles, of which it is not too much to say that four- 
fifths is performed through narrow channels amidst the 
reefs (vlir), shallows, sunken rocks, and bluff headlands of 
this iron-bound shore. The compass is scarcely ever used ; 
the navigation is performed by sight alone, and is in a 
manner rendered possible by the short nights or perpetual 
day of summer. Yet fogs prevail at certain seasons, and 
though happily we saw none, 1 could easily understand the 
greatness of the responsibility then imposed upon the pilot, 
who, at such times, distinguishes almost every rock and 



SINGULAR PILOTAGE— ALVERSTROM. 



105 



promontory by its peculiar physiognomy, and thus directs 
the vessel from point to point in safety, and with a degree 
of punctuality of arrival (in fine weather), at the numerous 
stations, altogether surprising. To expect such knowledge 
from the commanding officers is obviously impossible. Their 
main duty consists in seeing that one of the two pilots with 
whom each vessel is provided, is always at his post, and 
always sober, and for this purpose, the commander or 
lieutenant is always on the deck, and generally on the 
gangway between the paddle-boxes, which is the station of 
the pilot. The pilots are, of course, very highly paid \ I 
believe above £100 sterling for their summer service, be- 
sides provisions. 

The most singular part of this navigation from the 
Sogne-fiord to Bergen was through the Alversund, a mere 
canal in the' rock (entirely natural however), many miles in 
length, and in some places so narrow that the breadth did 
not appear to exceed the length of our little steamer. At 
one part the tide rushes through with considerable velocity. 
It is called the Alverstrom. At last we opened the beau- 
tiful bay of Bergen, also perfectly land-locked, with that 
cheerful little town before us, surrounded by green slopes 
and trees in abundance. The lowering sky, however, 
recalled my forebodings of what I was to expect from the 
proverbial wetness of the climate, and I immediately saw 
that the chance of a fine day for the eclipse was more than 
hazardous. We however landed without rain", and an Eng- 
lish gentleman on board and myself were most comfortably 

* I am informed that no serious accident has occurred to any one of the 
steamers on this coast since their establishment, some 25 years ago. It is 
announced that during the ensuing season (1853), the steamers will extend 
then voyage from Hammerfest completely round the North Cape to Vadso, 
on the Varanger-fiord. 



106 



BERGEN. 



lodged and kindly treated in the Hotel de Scandinavie 
(kept by Madame Friis), where, however, not a single word 
of any tongue but Norsk was spoken. 

The town of Bergen, though it has something in common 
with Christiania and Throndhjem, has yet very distinct 
features. Like the latter, it is built (one may say entirely) 
of wood ; it has wooden quays and warehouses like both ; 
it is also surrounded with woodland and pasture, but the 
trees are far better grown, and more conspicuous than those 
near Throndhjem, and the predominating character is not 
that of the pine-clad hills which nearly surround the capital 
of Norway. Every traveller has remarked that the forms 
and arrangement of the houses, which usually present their 
gables to the street, and the narrow steep thoroughfares, 
closely resemble the commercial towns of northern Ger- 
many, with which Bergen was formerly far more intimately 
connected, as it indeed still is, than with the other ports of 
Norway. A great influx in the fifteenth and sixteenth 
centuries of German traders, has impressed not only the 
German character upon the city, but its features upon the 
inhabitants. The slightest inspection shews that the Norsk 
blood has been here largely diluted. The people, though 
hardy, active, and renowned for their sea-faring qualities, 
have, as it seemed to me, a decidedly delicate cast of physi- 
ognomy and build (depending perhaps partly upon the 
damp and relaxing climate), which disappears entirely 
among the peasantry even of the province of Bergen itself, at 
no great distance from the capital. The ordinary costume 
of the women, and their faces, have, I thought, a decidedly 
Flemish cast, and the scrupulous cleanliness of the exterior 
of their dwellings (which are said, however, to be by no 
means so veil purified within) increases the resemblance. 



DESCRIPTION OF BERGEN— ITS TRADE. 



107 



Their wooden houses are almost all painted outwardly with 
white oil paint, and are carefully washed about once a week. 
The shops, though small, are much more numerous, and 
seemed to me to be better furnished than in either of the 
other Norwegian towns, and there is far greater appearance 
of commercial activity in every way. A great number of 
vessels, including two or three steamers, were lying in the 
harbour when we arrived, and the annual fleet of "yachts" 
from Lofodden and the north, of which we had passed 
probably hundreds on our voyage from Alten, were coming- 
in daily. They discharged their cumbrous and unsavoury 
cargoes by regulated rotation at the broad wooden quays, 
across which the fish is carried into spacious airy ware- 
houses, where they are stored until shipped, chiefly in 
foreign bottoms, for the markets of France and the Medi- 
terranean. The wealth and importance of Bergen, now 
considerably declined, arose from the extent of the fishery 
trade. It was, in fact, the port of Nordland, the distributor 
and converter of its natural wealth, and the market from 
whence almost all the common necessaries and the luxuries 
of life, as corn, groceries, clothes, and spirits, were and are 
conveyed by the empty yachts on their return voyage to 
their distant homes. Hence, naturally a close alliance has 
arisen between these two remote districts. The same 
families of fishermen and merchants in the north have 
dealt, generation by generation, for hundreds of years, with 
the same houses in Bergen. 

The upper classes of society in Bergen include the staff 
of consuls for different states, who are naturally amongst 
the most wealthy merchants of the place, and whose posi- 
tion implies, of course, much more real business than in 
most Norwegian ports, where the consular duties are often 



108 



BERGEN. 



nearly nominal. Besides these, are the legal authorities of 
the district, whose position is important from the great 
extent of country which regards Bergen as its metropolis, 
and in which there exists not only no town but scarcely a 
village — the houses being solitary, or grouped in small 
hamlets. I had the good fortune to make the acquaintance 
of several able and well-informed gentlemen connected 
with the administration of justice — one in particular, who 
shewed me the utmost hospitality, and who spared no pains 
to make my residence at Bergen, and my subsequent journey, 
pleasant and profitable. The clergy, too, are an important 
class in every Norwegian town, and are highly remune- 
rated, considering the value of money here. Besides the 
national churches, there is one where the service is con- 
ducted in German. There is a museum, of which the 
richest and most scientific part appeared to be the collec- 
tion of marine zoophytes, formed, I believe, chiefly by the 
Eev. Mr. Sars, a clergyman of the established church, well 
known in foreign countries as a naturalist, and who at 
the time I was at Bergen was absent in Italy studying the 
animals of the Mediterranean Sea. I think I understood 
that he had not only obtained leave of absence from his 
parish, but that his expenses were paid by the Storthing. 
Pontoppidan, whose curious and amusing work on the 
natural history of Norway (which contains the description, 
and probably the earliest representation, of the sea serpent), 
was Bishop of Bergen. From seeing a specimen of a 
beaver in the museum, I was led to make some inquiry as 
to its existence in Norway at the present time. It appears 
that it is still found in Gulbrandsdal, and is tolerably 
abundant in Tellemarken and Kaabygdelaget (N.W. from 
Arendahl). The beaver has latterly diminished so much 



INSULATION OF BERGEN FROM THE REST OF NORWAY. 109 

in numbers, that it is now by law rigorously protected for 
a certain number of years. 

I return once more for a few moments to the position 
and aspect of the town. The direct connection and exten- 
sive intercourse of Bergen as an entrepot between foreign 
countries and the high north, has been already explained. 
The same considerations account for its remarkable isola- 
tion in point of intercourse with Throndhjem and Christiania. 
With the former there is almost absolutely no commercial or 
other relation ; and though a great many Bergenser (as the 
residents are called) have been once or twice in Christiania, 
it i* altogether accidental and out of the common course ; 
and, on the other hand, I found that very few persons 
of my acquaintance at Christiania had ever thought of 
visiting Bergen. To all intents and purposes, Bergen 
might be upon an island far removed from the rest of Nor- 
way. In fact, not one person in fifty, or more probably in 
five hundred, arrives at Bergen from Christiania without 
making not one but several voyages — short indeed, but 
upon the salt sea, and by no means devoid of peril at many 
seasons. I now speak of what may be called the land 
route — not by the coasting steamers, which between Chris- 
tiania and Bergen are slow, expensive, and much more 
exposed to heavy seas than in the northern part of the 
voyage. There does not exist any thing like a road- — 
hardly even a horse track, to the entire avoidance of water 
carriage between those two important towns. There is a 
most exposed and often dangerous sail or row of not less 
than thirty -five English miles in a stretch, on the iron-bound 
and tempest-haunted shores of the Sogne-fiord, which is 
seldom performed under ten hours in the height of summer, 
and which is one " stage" of the great post-road. Besides 



110 



BEKGEN. 



this, there is one fresh- water lake and two arms of the sea, 
on the banks of which no road exists, and which must be 
traversed by boat, with unshipment of the carriage and 
such like inconveniences. In spring these stages are some- 
times for weeks together blockaded by floating ice, so as to 
render all passage impracticable. I am therefore justified 
in saying that, to all intents and purposes, Bergen is as if 
on an island, remote from the mainland and carriageable 
ways. It is in reality on the west side of a peninsula, some 
25 miles long and 15 broad, united to the mainland by an 
isthmus (between the Samnanger and Nord-Oster fiords) 
about two miles wide. The bay on which it is built opens 
to the north-west, but is enclosed from the open sea by a 
complete double barricade of considerable islands. On each 
side of the bay the hills rise to a moderate height. The 
most conspicuous (called I believe Olriken) is to the east, 
and is a sort of barometer to the people of the place. 
Accordingly, it was covered with clouds during my stay. 
The centre of the bay runs up through a very narrow creek 
into an expanded salt-water basin behind the town, with 
green smiling banks pleasingly clothed with deciduous 
trees, with which are connected some pretty walks and 
drives. A hospital for lepers, a neat and well placed build- 
ing, is on the shore of the basin. Leprosy is still common 
in most parts of Norway, and is rather on the increase ; it 
is a very intractable and loathsome disease. In Bergen it 
has always been peculiarly virulent, which Pontoppidan 
ascribes to the oily fish diet of the inhabitants. Indeed, he 
distinctly affirms Bergen (where he resided) to be the most 
unhealthy place in Norway ; I do not know whether this 
character be really deserved. The town is closely adapted 
to the form of the coast — but numerous suburbs of rather 



CLIMATE OF BERGEN. 



Ill 



pleasing villas diverge in several directions. One of the 
most agreeable walks cr drives is towards the north to 
Nyhavn, a charmingly situated little seaport. Here the 
beauty of the colouring, the softness of the air, and the 
pleasant aspect of groves descending to the very water's edge, 
and buildings projecting into it, involuntarily recalled once 
more the scenery of Italy. Bergen has been a fortified place, 
and still possesses a garrison. Fortifications, not in good re- 
pair, are placed at the two extremities of the V, which rudely 
represents the ground-plan of the town. A solid square 
tower of great strength, and evident antiquity, called Wal- 
kendorff's Tower, exists in the northern part of the town. 

The climate of Bergen is notoriously the most rainy in 
Norway. On the other hand, it is remarkably free from 
the excesses of temperature which characterise Chris- 
tiania. The latitude of the two towns is almost the same. 
The average temperature of Bergen is above 5° Fahr. higher 
than that of Christiania, the former being 46°.8, the latter 
41°.5. But whilst the summer temperature of the two places 
is nearly the same, the three winter months are on an 
average not less than 13° colder at Christiania — a vast 
difference. In short, Christiania has a far more continental 
climate than Bergen, the latter being exposed to the power- 
ful moderating influence of the ocean, here warmed far 
above average by the gulf-stream, and at the same time 
sheltered from the cold winds by a series of ridges of 
mountains of considerable height. These again condensing 
the moist vapours from the Atlantic, temper the summer 
heats by frequent rains and still more abundant fogs. The 
amount of rain is greater than at almost any other place in 

* The winter means are 36°.3 and 23°.2 ; the summer means 58°.6 and 
59°.8 respectively. Dove's Temp. Tables. — Brit. Assoc. Eep. 1847. 



112 



BERGEN. 



Europe,* and exceeds that of probably any other spot in 
its own district, the climate of the most mountainous parts 
of the Bergen-stift being unquestionably drier. The annual 
fall of rain and snow at Bergen is stated at 73 inches, being 
five times as much as at Upsala, on the continental side of 
the Scandinavian peninsula."!" The larger quantity of rain, 
however, falls during the winter half-year, whilst the 
contrary is the case at Christiania. The humidity of the 
climate is a standing joke in all parts of Norway against 
the " Bergenser," of whose wardrobe a great-coat and 
umbrella are alleged to be, even in the height of summer, 
the most important part 5 and few, if any travellers seem 
disposed to gainsay its reputation. I was not destined to 
form an exception. During the greater part of my stay it 
rained more or less, though not unceasingly. I should not 
have regarded this (having been led to expect it), but for the 
coming total eclipse of the sun. 

It may be thought indeed unwise that I should have 
staked my second chance of seeing perfectly this great 
phenomenon (having been in a measure disappointed 
already at Turin in 1842), by fixing upon a place of such 
ill-fame in point of climate. But my journey to Norway 
was undertaken with other objects as well as this, and the 
occurrence of the eclipse in the very height of summer 
(28th July 1851), when alone the most interesting parts of 
Norway can be advantageously visited, almost compelled 
me to select a position on the western part of the limited 
track which the total darkness would trace out. On this 
space and not far from its centre, Bergen was temptingly 

* It is still exceeded at the English Lakes, for similar reasons, 
-f- Vargas Bedeinar's Reise, i. 185. See also Schouw's Climat d 'Italic. 
At Christiania the average fall of rain is ahout 21.2 inches; 



TOTAL ECLIPSE OF THE SUN. 



113 



situated, and the fortunate coincidence of the time, — within 
three days of the return of the steamer from Hammerfest, — 
gave me an opportunity which I could not resist, of obtain- 
ing a sight of the arctic regions and perpetual day. To 
this may be added the desirableness of observers being 
distributed along all parts of the space of total darkness, as 
well for the chances of weather as for other reasons. And, 
in fact, the weather at Christiania and Bergen is so often 
contrary, that it was quite possible that the sky at Chris- 
tiania might be covered with clouds, and that at Bergen 
clear. Had I obtained in time all the local information 
which I expected, it is probable that I should have chosen 
a station some 30 or 40 English miles landward from the 
town of Bergen, where the climate is very sensibly drier. 
As it was, the total phase of the eclipse, which was abso- 
lutely invisible everywhere near the coast, was tolerably 
seen at some distance up the fiords, and particularly at 
Laardalsoren on the Sogne-fiord. 

No such good fortune attended me at Bergen. I was 
consoled for the disappointment, as far as was possible, 
by the unaffected kindness and sympathy of my friends 
there, who, with truly Norwegian courtesy, seemed to feel 
much more on account of a stranger who had travelled so 
far, partly for the express purpose, than they did upon their 
own. Some notice of my intention had, it seems, been 
circulated in a Christiania newspaper spme time before, so 
that I found my coming fully expected, and all parties 
anxious to accommodate me to the utmost. The com- 
mandant of the troops most politely reserved for me a clear 
space on one of the old bastions, which I have before 
mentioned, named Friedrichs, and caused a tent to be 
erected for the protection of my instruments. Thither I 



114 



BERGEN. 



repaired shortly before the time of total darkness, accom- 
panied by my friend Captain Lous of the Prinds Gustav 
steamer, whose courtesies had by no means ceased when 
his comfortable vessel was no longer my home, by several 
Bergen friends, and by an English gentleman in the same 
hotel, the only other countryman, I believe, in the place. 
The morning had been rather brighter than some previous 
ones — before 12 o'clock the sun had even shone gaily at 
intervals — but the clouds were throughout so menacing 
that no one derived thence much confidence for the after- 
noon. The body of the sun was visible, however, for a 
little after the commencement of the eclipse (calculated 
local time, 2 h. 17 m. p.m.), but it soon became more and more 
overcast, a portentous sort of calm commenced, exactly as 
occurred in 1842, the clouds being almost motionless. 
Indeed, the rapid withdrawal of the sun's heat tends itself 
to defeat the anxious gazer, and to turn the scale of chances 
against the visibility of the phenomenon. 

As the hour of commencing total darkness (3 h. 21 m. 
p.m.) approached, the whole sky became uniformly bespread 
with dense clouds. The rapidity of the consummation was 
not so great as I had observed in 1842, which was easily 
accounted for by the diffusing effect of the thick curtain of 
vapour which already absorbed so much of the sun's direct 
light. There was a tendency on the part of those near me 
to feel disappointed at the degree of darkness, but this was 
because they were altogether unprepared for the nearly 
sudden transition from day to night which takes place at 
the instant that the moon's edge conceals the" very last 
portion of the sun's disk. When that really happened, it 
was impossible to have any doubt to within perhaps a half, 
or even a quarter of a minute, from its mere effect on sur- 



TOTAL ECLIPSE OF THE SUN. 



115 



rounding objects. The calculated deviation of total dark- 
ness was 3 m. 37 s. Our position commanded not only a 
general view of the country round, but particularly of the 
town of Bergen itself. The houses which compose it are 
(as has been mentioned) almost all of wood, and painted 
white ; and the particular hue of the scattered light during 
the middle of the eclipse was remarkably brought out by 
this circumstance. It appeared to me of decidedly a 
blueish tinge, remarkably cold and unnatural. A fire 
which happened to be lighted in a ship-builder's yard, and 
which before had been imperceptible, now threw out a 
striking red glare. Our countenances appeared wan and 
colourless ; a chilly feeling caused an involuntary shiver. 
One bat, escaped apparently from the rents of the fortress, 
flew about us very energetically ; but some sheep grazing 
near, were remarked not to be sensibly disturbed. There 
was a considerable concourse of people of all classes, but I 
did not observe any signs of strong emotion. It is not, 
indeed, the character of the people to express it. The 
approach of the eclipse had been denoted by the appear- 
ance of a great black cloud in the N.W., which gradually 
rose above the horizon like an approaching storm ; but its 
boundary (for it was merely the shadow in the sky) was 
too vague to produce the appalling sense of the onward 
movement of a real substance, with . a speed exceeding 
about one hundred fold that of the most rapid railway 
train, and making right for the spectator, as I had observed 
on the plains of Piedmont on occasion of the total eclipse 
of 1842. But the restoration of the light — the new dawn, 
when the shadow of the darkness had passed by — was 
perhaps quite as grand : a copper-coloured aurora rose in 
the N.W., shading off the ill-defined limits of total obscu- 



11 



BERGEN. 



ration, and in a few seconds more we were left in the dull 
dusky atmosphere of Bergen, which soon resolved itself 
into its accustomed elements of rain drops. 

As to the real amount of the darkness at the greatest, I 
cannot speak with much exactness. T had indeed provided 
myself with an apparatus, intended to afford some tolerably 
definite conclusion. But, except with a clear sky, the 
result could have had no scientific value. As a popular 
estimate, I may state that, during the total phase, I found 
it impossible to read a portion of rather small English 
newspaper type (about the second smallest size commonly 
used in the " Times") ; and I had to approach within two 
feet of a card, on which were printed sets of parallel lines, 
in order to distinguish that the widest and strongest group 
consisted of lines at all, and were not a mere shading. 
About ten minutes after the totality, I could discern these 
same lines as well at 15 feet off. 

Before closing this chapter, I will mention a circum- 
stance which added considerably to the local interest felt 
in this total eclipse. When a total eclipse was last visible 
in Norway I am unable now to state, but the popular 
mind, with singular fidelity to its time-honoured traditions, 
at once recurred to one which occurred more than eight 
centuries ago, and which, owing to the peculiar circum- 
stances of the time, was recorded in the Sagas, and has 
been traditionally recollected ever since. It happened, as 
has been placed beyond a doubt by the careful and ingeni- 
ous researches of Professor Harsteen of Christiania, on the 
afternoon of the 31st August 1030.* King Olaf the saint 
(canonized for his efforts to introduce at the point of the 

* Professor Harsteen's results are detailed in Schumacher's Astrono- 
mische Nachrichten, Erg'cinzitngsheft,, 1849. 



TOTAL ECLIPSE OF 1030 IN ViERDAL. 



117 



sword the doctrines of Christianity among the heathens of 
Scandinavia) engaged in battle on that day with his 
rebellious subjects, who were urged on by Knut, king of 
Denmark and England, who desired also to acquire Nor- 
way. Olaf "was returning from Sweden with the troops he 
had collected, and entered his own dominions not far from 
Throndhjem. Meeting the revolters, led by three powerful 
chiefs, at Stiklastad, in Vserdal, about sixty English miles 
north-east of the capital, he gave them fight, was defeated 
and slain. In the chronicle of Snorre Sturlason, it is 
related that " the weather was fine and the sun shone clear, 
but after the fight began, a red hue overspread the sky and 
the sun, and before the battle ended, it was dark as night." 
One of the skalds or poets thus expressed it, " the unclouded 
sun refused to warm the Northmen. A great wonder hap- 
pened that day. The day was deprived of its fair light." 
The body of Olaf was secretly conveyed to Throndhjem 
(then called Nidaros) and interred. A chapel was after- 
wards built over it, which is now included within the east 
end of the cathedral. 

This narrative recals that of the eclipse of Thales, which, 
occurring in the midst of a fight between the Medes and 
Lydians (b.c. 585), struck both parties with such terror, 
that they made peace at once. If the eclipse of Stiklastad 
was less impressive, it was owing to its shorter duration. 
That it could have been nothing short of total, appears 
from the circumstance that the combatants could not recog- 
nise one another ; but the total darkness lasted, by Har- 
steen's calculation, only twelve seconds, the eclipse being 
even annular at some other points of the earth's surface. 
It was universally regarded, however, as an evil omen. 
Both these eclipses serve to fix with accuracy the date of 



118 



BERGEN. 



remote and important historical events, and they give autho- 
rity to the chronicles which describe them, and furnish 
valuable corrections to the lunar tables. Mr. Airy (the 
astronomer royal), who has been more fortunate than myself 
in witnessing the total eclipses of 1842 and 1851, and whom 
no one will accuse of exaggeration, affirms, in speaking of 
the moral effect of the total eclipse of Thales, that "the 
phenomenon is in fact one of the most terrible that man can 
witness, and no degree of partial eclipses can give any idea 
of its horror." In this I entirely agree with him. 



CHAPTER VI. 



THE HAEDANGER-FIOKD. 

LAND JOURNEY TO OOS— OOS TO TEROE — RECEPTION AT THE INN— KVINDHERRED-FIORD 
ROSENDAL — TRACES OF ANCIENT GLACIERS — METHOD OF CATCHING SALMON 
MORANGER-FIORD — BONDHUUS — THE GLACIER AND ITS MORAINE — OEVREHUUS 

• PASSAGE OF THE GLACIER OF THE FOLGEFOND TO TOCKHEIM— ODDE— THE SOR-FIORD 
ULLENSVANG— UTNE— GRAVEN— SCENERY— VOSSEVANGEN. 

The day after the eclipse I left Bergen on a journey to 
visit the scenery and glaciers of its rugged fiords and 
mountains, and finally to make my way to Christiania. 
For this purpose I left my carriole (which I had driven 
originally from Christiania to Throndhjem, and brought 
by steamer from the latter place) to be conveyed to Lserdal- 
soren, near the head of the Sogne-fiord, by a small steamer 
which plies weekly at this season between that village and 
Bergen. I was strongly and wisely dissuaded from the 
temptation of making that easy voyage, which is compara- 
tively uninteresting, besides leaving altogether on one side 
the important district of the Hardanger. I was equally 
well advised to be quit of my carriole in the meantime, as 



120 



THE HARD ANGER-FIORD. 



by far the greater part of the journey was performed in 
open boats, where even a carriole is a serious incumbrance. 

The province of Bergenhuus is (as already intimated) 
cut off by nature from the rest of Norway. A range of 
most rugged mountains, crossed by but one road, divides it 
from the provinces of Christiansand, Aggershuus, and 
Throndhjem ; and the space thus cut off is not only in 
almost every part embattled with mountains and scarred 
with chasms, but the ocean seems to struggle step by step 
for possession with the dry land, thrusting its many-fingered 
arms into the very heart of the country — not rolling its 
waves upon green slopes and shores which invite cultiva- 
tion, but dashing them against the breakers, or lying in 
motionless pools at the foot of impending cliffs inaccessible 
to man or beast. It is amidst such scenes that the charac- 
ter of the Norwegian landscape may be rightly appreciated, 
and the two great fiords of Hardanger and Sogne afford the 
best inlets to it — the one lying to the south, the other to 
the north of Bergen, and the character of both increasing 
in wildness as we recede from the coast. 

I considered myself remarkably fortunate in obtaining, 
through the unwearying kindness of my friends in Bergen, 
not only an itinerary which should conduct me in the 
shortest possible time to the spots which were likely to 
interest me most, but the companionship of a gentleman of 
education and of the most amiable manners, a native of 
Bergen, himself partly acquainted already with the country, 
and who had intended making a tour in the same direc- 
tion. I considered this combination of our plans one of 
the most fortunate circumstances of my journey. For it 
was hardly to be expected, in these wilds, that I should 
meet (except here and there) with a single person talking 



FROM BERGEN TO OOS. 



121 



any language but Norwegian, with which I was almost 
entirely unacquainted ; and every one who has undergone 
the misery of travelling alone amongst people whose lan- 
guage he knows even slightly, who are unaccustomed to see 
many strangers, to understand their wants and wishes, or, 
above all, the value of their time, at once comprehends how 
much I gained, not only in physical comfort, but in in- 
struction about the objects of my study, in insight into the 
character and habits of the people, in economy of time and 
the avoidance of numberless and irritating mistakes, by the 
presence of an agreeable and communicative companion. 

Our journey commenced under no flattering auspices. The 
lowering weather of some previous days broke into down- 
right rain when the eclipse was over, and the following day 
it fell in torrents, with a hopeless continuity which seemed 
quite familiar to the denizens of Bergen. Wisely, as it proved, 
though not without some misgiving, I resolved to persevere ; 
and, as the air was pleasant and calm, we jogged on in a 
gig holding two persons (a luxury only to be procured 
in large towns), which was engaged to take us as far as 
Oos, 2\ Norsk miles (17 English) south-west of Bergen, on 
the way to the Hardanger-fiord. Our conductor, or horse- 
boy, stuck himself on behind in an anomalous position, and 
soon became drenched to the very skin, which did not 
discompose his cheerfulness. He and my friend D. kept 
up a running conversation the greater part of the way, the 
sole subject of which, I was told, was the physical and 
moral excellencies of the animal we drove, and which, at 
every gentle rise of the road, our little friend jumped off to 
caress, and to put his hands under different parts of the 
harness, where, if he found the slightest trace of perspira- 
tion, he would say some imploring words to my friend to 



122 



THE HARDANGER-FIORB. 



spare the toil of his beloved animal. This dread of ex- 
posing their horses to unnecessary labour — amiable in 
moderation — becomes ludicrous when carried to the excess 
which it is all over the Bergen-stift, where boating is the 
usual mode of conveyance, and where men submit them- 
selves, and even their children, to the most prolonged and 
fatiguing exertion, but cannot bear to see a hair turn on 
their favourite pony's coat. 

The road from Bergen issues through an old gateway, 
and is there adorned on each side with well-grown trees in 
full leaf, and green and cultivated fields, with not a few 
pretty villas — the lagoon of salt-water formerly mentioned 
lying to the right of the road. The growth of grass in the 
fields is abundant to rankness, but the attempted grain 
crops of oats and barley were prostrated by the heavy 
rain, and gave no hope (now on the eve of the month of 
August) of ever becoming ready for the sickle. The formal 
allees of trees and the trim villas were left, and we soon 
came into a wilder and opener country, but still exceedingly 
pleasing, well wooded with birch and alder, and shewing, 
here and there, a farm-house or country residence of a pro- 
prietor. Among these is one belonging to an English 
gentleman, who often spends the summer at Bergen, and his 
property might well pass for an elegant retirement in the 
Highlands of Scotland, with an excellent garden, well-fenced 
fields, and pretty natural undulating ground, with dells 
and knolls, streams, and little tarns, overhung by beautiful 
birch trees, and witli bold bare hills in the distance. 
We soon passed on our left hand the great road to Voss 
and Christiania, and continued forwards on the road which, 
by courtesy, is said to lead to Stavanger and Christiansand — 
though how much of the way is on water, and how imich 



DIALLAGE FORMATION. 



123 



on solid land, let those who have travelled it say. We 
halted awhile amidst still pouring rain at Birkeland, to re- 
fresh the horse, and then, descending a hill, drove close by 
the eastern side of a pretty lake, after which we came 
amongst a series of wooded knolls of considerable height 
and steepness, which called forth from our guide expressions 
of the warmest sympathy and admiration for his horse, 
whose task we were of course expected to lighten by walk- 
ing up all the hills. I made some feeble attempts to 
geologize, for we were now on the borders of one of 
those remarkable diallage formations, which are interesting 
features in Norwegian geology, and especially in the 
Bergen-stift, where they are usually associated with the mica 
and clay slates. But the annoyance of having to leave 
one's carriage and move about in soaking rain, and the im- 
possibility of consulting books and maps under those circum- 
stances, soon made me give it up. Indeed, the only specimen 
of this remarkable diallage formation which I collected, was 
in the streets of Bergen, where, finding a loose pebble, I did 
not rest until, to the no small disturbance of the neighbour- 
hood, a hammer was found, and a piece broken off it. The 
formation is described incidentally in Von Buch's journey, 
and more particularly in Naumann's Travels.f I observed 
the boulders from the carriage before reaching Birkeland, 
but, hoping to find the rock in situ, I neglected to secure 
specimens. 

By the time we reached Oos (17 English miles in 

* German edit. i. 479. 
f Reise i. 132, &c. and ii. 108. It would appear that Naumann was 
not aware of Von Buch's distinct account of this formation, given with his 
usual mineralogical precision, or he would not have fallen into the error of 
supposing that true diallage does not belong to it. His map, too, appears 
not to agree entirely with Von Buch's description. 



124 



THE HARDANGER-FIOED. 



four hours !) it was fair, and fortunately perfectly calm. 
There is a pleasant little inn at the water's edge, and 
we lost no time in ordering a boat to be got ready 
to convey us to the island and water-station of Teroe, 
on the way to the Hardanger-fiord, and in procuring 
what materials for dinner the house afforded, which were 
scanty enough ; but I had brought an ample supply from 
Mad. Friis' comfortable inn at Bergen. After a delay of 
two hours, a four-oared boat was procured, Oos being a 
regular water-station, the host (as is very generally the 
case), the " skydskaffer," or the responsible provider of 
boats and rowers at a fixed price. The rowers are taken in 
regular routine ; therefore a stranger who has not sent 
a " forbud" may have to wait for a considerable time until 
the peasant, whose turn it is to be employed, has been sent 
for, even though others might be close at hand. If a for- 
bud has been sent, and the party does not appear, the 
" skydskaffer" must, in the first instance, pay the " venti- 
penge" or waiting money, although he has recourse against 
the real debtor if he can find him. This change of purpose 
very rarely indeed occurs amongst Norwegians, but with 
Englishmen occasionally. I had the mortification of hear- 
ing at Oos, that an Englishman, after ordering a boat or 
boats, had, with culpable negligence, amounting to disho- 
nesty, evaded payment, which the innkeeper defrayed from 
his own pocket. I have never since ceased to regret that 
I did not pay this small amount, as some reparation for the 
injury which such conduct by an Englishman entails upon 
the character of his countrymen. 

It was half-past three when we started, and we had 
three Norsk miles (twenty-one English) before us to Teroe, 
without a hope of hoisting a sail, the little wind being con- 



OOS TO TEBOE — LOG-SUND. 



125 



traiy. I therefore readily agreed to take four rowers, that 
we might not arrive too late. I had been a little puzzled 
by the recommendation I had before received, not to take 
less than three men ; for it never occurred to me that with 
heavy boats and heavy seas each man would work a pair 
of oars at once, which is the invariable practice, and this 
was the only occasion on which I took more than three 
rowers. There was no reason, however, to regret it. The 
Strande-fiord is wide and open, though sheltered from the 
ocean by a strong barricade of islands ; but its surface is 
sufficiently large to admit of a heavy sea running. The 
weather was, fortunately, nearly calm, and we had but a slight 
shower in the course of crossing this arm of the sea. My 
companion gave me the benefit of his experience, in causing 
the stern of the boat to be arranged with straw and coarse 
blankets, so as to afford a very comfortable reclining seat, 
on which we lay, covered up with a carpet or sail. A little 
attention to these arrangements beforehand is quite invalu- 
able in the long-run 5 and it is surprising how little we 
afterwards suffered, even in heavy rain, with the aid of our 
umbrella. The broad fiord was at length crossed, but we 
were still but half-way to Teroe. We halted at the entrance 
of the Log-sund to refresh the men, and I landed for a few 
minutes upon a rocky promontory rising from the water 
and entirely covered with glacier furrows. 

After a pause, during which the sailors supped on the 
never-failing "flad brod" (a thin cake of rye meal) and 
butter — which they took from wooden chip boxes which are 
remarkably firm and light, and are used in Norway for in- 
numerable purposes — we entered the narrow and highly- 
picturesque Log-sund, which divides the island of Tysenes 
from the mainland. It somewhat resembles the Rafte-sund 



126 



THE HARDANGER-FIORD. 



in Lofodden, only while the high grounds are infinitely less 
rugged and sublime, the shores have a rich Swiss charac- 
ter of scenery, more striking in its way than I had yet 
seen in Norway. Woods of dark fir clothe the slopes and 
overtop the cliffs, interspersed occasionally with cottages 
and saw mills ; and about the centre of this curious passage 
is a snug " Kjobmand's " residence, with its jetty and ware- 
house. A very strong current from the southward, and a 
freshening breeze in the same direction, made our passage 
a long one ; and to escape their force our boatmen crept 
close in-shore, exerting all their strength to pass the head- 
lands, but thus greatly increasing the direct distance. All 
these promontories were strongly marked by strige and fur- 
rows, and the evidence was conclusive that the force, of 
whatever kind it was, which acted so powerfully in smooth- 
ing and abrading the rocks, had passed from south to north, 
and not in the contrary direction. Considering the position 
of the Log-sund — nearly parallel to the general run of coast, 
and terminating at each end in a wide expanse of water — 
the conditions under which this force was exerted do ap- 
pear singularly anomalous. Numerous boulders lie in many 
places on the dressed surfaces. When we emerged from 
the narrows of the Log-sund into a wide fiord, the evening 
was advanced ; and the breeze having freshened and being 
still a-head, we made little progress, and the motion became 
unpleasant. At last we got under shelter of the little island 
of Teroe, and landed near ten o'clock, at a well-built com- 
fortable house, which is also the steamboat station for the 
Hardanger country. 

For a place of public entertainment, our reception was 
not the most hospitable. In fact, but for the energy and 
address of my Norsk-talking friend, I should have found it 



TEROE-COSTUME— KVINDHERRED-FIORD. 



127 



impossible, I believe, to get anything to eat, if indeed I 
could have had a bed. This was partly explained by the 
fact, that the landlord was very ill at the time in the house; 
but it is also true that these stations, or houses of call, are 
very profitable in a mercantile point of view, and usually 
occupied by persons of substance, who care little or nothing 
about casual travellers, who are few in number, and whose 
custom is little worth 5 but it is a condition of their hold- 
ings that travellers shall be entertained ; and though the 
natural hospitality of the Norwegian character commonly 
renders this no hardship, still there are exceptions, and of 
these the landlord of Teroe is (as I afterwards learned) a 
well-known one in all the Bergen country. The rooms 
and beds were as clean and nicely decorated as in a Swiss 
inn, and the perfect composure of the matron — who waited 
on us to the extent that her own convenience allowed — and 
her exquisitely tidy and becoming costume (such as I now 
saw for the first time) reminded one strongly of some of 
the remoter Swiss cantons. The cap of the Hardanger 
peasant is of singular form, and of thick blue cloth, em- 
broidered ; it rises like a sort of flat horse shoe above the 
head, the cloth being stretched over a frame of some sort 
to give it that figure. The dress is of the same material, 
very neatly embroidered with red and white on the breast, 
arms, and waist. 

Our next progress was to ascend the great Kvindherred- 
fiord, which is the exterior part of the Hardanger-fiord, 
and with it forms one of the greatest sea lochs in Norway. 
Teroe lies exactly at the entrance of it. Our boat had been 
ordered over-night, and was punctually ready. About 
seven we started for Bondhuus, distant three Norsk miles. 
The morning was hazy, but we had not advanced far before 



128 



THE HARD ANGER-FIORD. 



the uplifted vapour rolled over the peaks and islands, 
giving promise of a splendid day. Now indeed we rejoiced 
in having broke through the spell of rainy weather which 
seemed to tie us to Bergen. We rowed close under the 
high cliffs of the northern shore of the Kvindherred- 
fiord, which gradually took a milder character, and were 
covered with brushwood and deciduous trees. Oppo- 
site, was the pretty bay of Kvindherred, with its church, 
and the castle of Rosendal, an ancient baronial residence, 
celebrated in all this country for its amenity amidst some 
of the sternest and wildest scenery of Norway. I had a 
letter for the proprietor, which T longed to present, but to 
avail myself of it would have consumed this day at least ; 
and, in this country particularly, time and weather wait for 
none, and urge the traveller onward to make use of the 
present opportunity to attain the objects of his excursion, 
though he might linger for weeks in the enjoyment of the 
hospitable welcome which, with suitable introductions, he 
is sure everywhere to receive. This lesson of self-denial 
was oftentimes repeated (sometimes under circumstances 
which rendered obedience to it difficult) during the next 
fortnight. 

Majestic mountains rise behind Rosendal, and extend 
in an irregular chain towards the north-east, forming the 
well-known range of Folgefonden ; but the perpetual snow 
from which they take their name (fonden) scarcely appears 
from below, as it lies on their flat summits, or is concealed 
by nearer heights. Passing the large island of Varalsoe on 
our left, which divides the fiord into two branches, we 
rowed across to the southern shore, the day being warm 
and dead calm. From the promontory of Aarsnes we kept 
close in-shore in the direction of the Moranger-fiord, where 



SALMON-FISHING — MoRAXOER- FIORD. 



129 



lies the hamlet and glacier of Bondhuus, which was our 
main object to-day. All this coast displays roches mou- 
tonnees, channelled and scolloped surfaces of rock, to an ex- 
tent which cannot fail to strike even a superficial observer ; 
and the perfection and sharpness of these marks of abrasion 
is more and more remarkable as we approach the glacier- 
bearing ridges which overhang the JMoranger-fiord. This 
fact is very striking and undeniable, as well as the greater 
height above the sea to which these markings extend, the 
direction of the action being evidently down the fiord, 
especially at a point called Svoldal, where the surfaces of 
abrasion are most extensive and well-marked. They not 
only reach a high level, but are further characterised by 
numerous detached blocks, rounded at the corners, over- 
lying them. Near (Enes are some remarkable terraces. 
Here I first observed a sort of erection on the shore, with 
which I afterwards became familiar. It is a kind of rude 
scaffolding of trunks of trees projecting over the water of 
the fiord at a very considerable height above its level. It 
is placed at the outlet of some stream or rivulet, which 
salmon frequent to spawn. A man stands for hours on 
his high look-out, watching intently till he sees a fish 
beneath him, when he raises, by means of a counterpoised 
lever, a net which secures the fish. 

A little way up the Moranger-fiord, on the right hand, 
we pass a waterfall of extreme beauty at Fureberg. Be- 
sides numerous leaps, it presents the most splendid sheet of 
white foam which I have ever seen, literally clothing a pre- 
cipice of immense superficial area with its ever-changing 
and graceful drapery. I have not seen many of the higher 

* " A waterfall, if united and extended, is drapery, as much as silk or 
woollen stuff is." — Modern Painters, i. 59. 

K 



130 



THE HARDANGER-FIOED. 



and more-renowned Norwegian waterfalls, but I doubt 
whether any of them unite more grace with grandeur than 
this. The ascent of the fiord is interesting. Our men 
became indolent, as it was still early in the day, and con- 
sequently we did not reach Bondhuus (on the east bank) 
until two o'clock. The hamlet is some hundred yards from 
the shore. It consists of a number of very primitive 
wooden houses arranged along a rude sort of street. We 
had some difficulty in finding John Bondhuus, the peasant, 
to whom we had been recommended as a guide for the 
glacier. It was fortunate that we did not start without 
one, as many Englishmen, unable to speak or understand 
the language, might naturally enough do. 

The villagers were almost without exception engaged 
in cutting their hay crop, of which the fertile and sunny 
slopes yield a good harvest, and they are carefully fenced 
and cultivated, reminding me again most intimately of a 
Swiss scene ; and the importance of a precarious day of fine 
weather was in this climate evidently so great that it was 
with reluctance we impressed the services of the vene- 
rable old man to whom we had been addressed, and who 
prepared to accompany us, together with his little grandson. 
His was a most picturesque figure — very tall and once 
muscular, but still erect, and with a commanding, yet mild 
and sombre expression of countenance ; his health was 
evidently bad, and he had recently lost his wife. His thick 
and long hair hung down his neck. Our path to the Bond- 
huus Brae (or glacier) lay right up a lateral valley, at whose 
opening the little village is placed, and from which a 
foaming torrent of no small size rushes to the sea. We 
began at once to ascend a very steep mound of debris, 
with a level top, which closes the valley. This is an un- 



BONDHUUSDAL— ANCIENT MORAINES. 



131 



mistakeable moraine, composed of gravel and blocks of all 
dimensions pushed on by the glacier at a time when it 
extended almost to the sea, or nearly three English miles 
beyond its present limit ; and the steep talus already men- 
tioned, is the natural slope of what has evidently been at a 
remote period the terminal moraine of the Bondhuus glacier. 
This appears not only from its composition and numerous 
superimposed blocks, but from its ground-plan, which is 
concave towards the origin of the valley, and further, from 
a repetition farther up the valley of several similar concave 
mounds of blocks, marking positions of temporary pause of 
the glacier during its retreat towards its present limits. 
These phenomena, as must be well known to all who are 
acquainted with the Alps, or with descriptions of their gla- 
ciers, have their exact counterpart in Switzerland and Sa- 
voy. There is scarcely a considerable glacier which has 
not left unequivocal traces of its former wider extension 
in the form of terminal moraines more or less blocking 
up the valleys, and usually three or four of these concentric 
barriers may be discovered. In the Bondhuusdal care is 
necessary to distinguish some enormous stonefalls from the 
cliffs which overhang both sides of the valley, which might 
easily be mistaken for moraines, but for the more angular 
forms of the blocks and the inclination of the heaps descend- 
ing from the sides of the hills whence they are derived. 

The views are very striking and alpine; the glacier 
is always the principal object, even from the sea. It 
descends at first gradually from the snow-fields of the Folge- 
fond between two precipitous rocks, and falls steeply into 
the valley, with a slope comparable to that of the Glacier 
des Bossons descending from Mont Blanc. The drawing, 
Plate VI., shows its appearance from halfway up the valley. 



132 



THE HARD ANGER-FIORD. 



After ascending a steep mound of immense blocks — 
probably a moraine, but partly, perhaps, fallen from the 
cliffs — we come to a pretty large lake, which must be 
crossed in a boat ; for not only are the sides nearly impass- 
able, but they are seamed with foaming torrents which are 
absolutely so. Without a guide, then, we should have been 
completely at a loss. Old John led us to a little creek 
amongst the liuge boulders which form the dam of the lake, 
where lay a miserable, leaky skiff, the larger boat being 
at present on the farther side in the employ of the people 
who tend the cattle at a sceter or chalet on the high moun- 
tain pastures near the glacier. Three grown men, a boy, 
and a dog, were quite a sufficient load for our frail bark, 
and I was not sorry to arrive at the farther side in safety. 
The view from the lake was most striking in all direc- 
tions. It is situated in a deep amphitheatre of hills, well 
wooded to a height of, I suppose, 1500 or 2000 feet above 
the valley, with spots of pasture interspersed here and 
there. Above are bare and sterile rocks with patches of 
snow, and the head of the valley is closed in, as already 
mentioned, by the gleaming coronet of the perpetual snow- 
fields of the Folgefond, of which the edges generally alone 
appear, except where the glacier forms an outlet for the 
superfluity of the winter's supply. Four or five large cas- 
cades intersect the woods with an unbroken band of foam 
and loud uproar on different sides. The shores of the lake 
are steep, strewed with blocks, and nearly impassable. 
The view towards the sea is milder, but equally picturesque ; 
the valley narrows so much in that direction as almost 
to form a gorge, which is blockaded by the vast accumu- 
lations of debris already referred to, which form the barrier 
of the lake, and conceal the course of the A^alley beyond ; 



GrLACIEE OF BONDHUUS. 



L33 



but over it we have the fine forms of the bold hills, on the 
other side of the Moranger-fiord. 

Arrived at length at the extremity of the lake, we 
ascend anew a mound of blocks, probably a moraine, im- 
mediately in front of the glacier. The torrent to which 
the glacier gives rise is on our left. We soon came to 
the sceter 1 where people tend their cows and preserve 
milk during summer. No one was within, but we entered 
and examined the rude interior of the two huts, con- 
structed of loose, ill-fitting stones, under shelter of an 
overhanging rock. The arrangements were precisely such 
as are seen in the poorer Swiss chalets, and not at all 
more dirty. At last we reached the glacier, and I was 
surprised at the height we had ascended, in which, from 
a distance, I had been altogether deceived, especially by the 
intervention of the lake. The height above the sea (esti- 
mated by the aneroid barometer) to the foot of the ice is 
1120 feet. 

The whole appearance of the glacier is perfectly nor- 
mal, and such as we find in Switzerland. The ice is 
thoroughly well-formed, and of as fine a blue in the 
cavities as 1 almost ever saw. A torrent issues from an 
arch at the bottom. The veined structure is quite well de- 
fined and characteristic, but not greatly developed, except 
close to the ground, as in the Glacier des Bossons and 
similar cases where the glacier is not closely confined by 
lateral barriers towards its termination. Its inclination is 
steep throughout. I noticed the mark of last winter's 
moraine many fathoms in advance of the present limit of the 
ice, which, however, is now gaining ground afresh, driving 
a little moraine of five or six feet high before it. This, I 
presume, is the natural course of things. In spring, the 



134 



THE HARDANGEK-FIOKD. 



melting of the ice at the foot goes on faster than is com- 
pensated by the increased velocity of downward motion of 
the ice 5 but as the season advances, and the covering of snow 
is thawed, and the whole length and depth of the glacier 
feels the softening influence of summer, the increasing 
rapidity of motion over-compensates the waste. The great 
moraine of the glacier extends up either side in the usual 
manner. The blocks are of very beautiful crystalline gneiss. 

We returned as we came. I stopped to sketch at the 
third moraine, or barrier, from the glacier. On reaching 
Bondhuus, we thought it advisable, after consulting our 
guide, to prepare for to-morrow's journey across the Folge- 
fond to Odde on the Sor-fiord, by going ourselves overnight 
to Oevrehuus, at the very top of the Moranger-fiord, where 
alone good guides can be obtained for crossing the snows, as 
John Bondhuus himself very candidly told us ; and the old 
man willingly rowed us across in his boat, though he thereby 
lost our night's custom, which we also regretted, as his beds 
looked very clean. Our evening row, though short, was 
very lovely indeed. It was ten o'clock, and I saw stars for 
the first time in Norway. The evening looked settled, and 
the effect of fading twilight on the deep fiord was admir- 
able. Bondhuus introduced us at the untimely hour of 
eleven to a peasant named Swale at Oevrehuus, who, with 
his wife, immediately rose to receive us, and to make pre- 
parations for crossing the fond the following morning. The 
beds, if not luxurious, were clean, and we slept well. 

One difficulty connected with travelling in Norway is 
this, that the great variations in weather, and the frequent 
necessity of sitting many hours in an open boat, makes it 
absolutely necessary to carry a large stock of warm cloth- 
ing, which becomes most burdensome when strictly pedes- 



ASCENT OF THE FOLGEFOND. 



135 



trian excursions intervene. Here there was no help. Our 
whole luggage must be carried across the snow-field. Our 
host, with his son and daughter, undertook it. We thought 
that the girl had more than her share, whilst the boy, who 
was younger, was rather spared. Swale himself carried a 
heavy burden, considering the toilsome ascent. They all 
used a rope, with a wooden runner upon it, such as they 
employ for collecting and carrying great bundles of hay. 
As all the arrangements were made with great deliberation 
and gravity on the part of the family, it was half-past six 
a.m. before we were ready to start. 

The little valley of Oevrehuus, which continues the de- 
pression of the Moranger-fiord, is short and steep ; but the 
lower part is remarkably verdant, and beautifully diversi- 
fied by rock and wood. As we wound with our little train 
along the steep footpath, amongst the dewy meadows, we 
met plenty of peasants intent, like those of Bondhuus, on 
securing their annual harvest of hay. At length the way 
became very steep indeed, though a kind of track might be 
traced all the way up to the borders of the snow, which is 
frequented by the few travellers who pass this way, and by 
some goatherds who were already before us with their 
flocks on the hill sides. The chief depression of the valley 
winds towards the south, but we kept right onwards in a 
perfectly straight line, east of the hamlet which we had left, 
which, with the fiord beyond, seemed on looking back still 
almost under our feet, when we had been laboriously ascend- 
ing for three hours. We were obliged to march slowly, on 
account of our heavily-laden attendants, and it was half- 
past ten when we reached the level of the snow. The 
aneroid barometer — which I had examined very frequently 
during the ascent — seemed still to act correctly ; and from 



136 



THE HAKDANGER-FIOED. 



its indication I obtained a height of 3700 feet above the 
hamlet of Oevrehuus, which is but little elevated (perhaps 
from 100 to 200 feet) above the sea. We rested a good 
while before entering on the "fond" or snow-field, and our 
guides dined on their usual homely fare of fiad brod and 
butter. We should have done well to follow their example, 
but I had much under-estimated the extent of our march over 
the snow, and the inconvenience of halting there. In fact, 
judging from the map of Munch (and, I believe every other), 
it would appear as if Odde, on Sor-fiord, whither we were 
bound, lay precisely opposite to the Moranger-fiord, on the 
other side of the Folgefond. Had this been the case, we 
should only have had to cross the " fond" in its narrowest 
dimension, which is not great \ but the case is widely 
different — the track to be pursued runs parallel to the 
chain along its highest ridge for a long way. On gaining 
the top of the acclivity, which we had had in our view from 
the moment of leaving Oevrehuus, we entered all at once 
upon the table-land of the Folgefond, one sheet of bright, 
nearly level snow, which yet did not make itself visible by 
any overflow on the side by which we had ascended. 

I was naturally very curious to examine what I had 
seen so often described, as these Norwegian plateaux. The 
snow, fortunately for us, was of very good consistence. 
Probably new snow does not frequently fall in summer, for 
the general level is but little above the snow line. It 
is, for the most part, in the state of neve, a term applied 
to the stratified slightly compressed snow of the higher 
Alps, before it is condensed into the crystalline ice of 
glaciers. The stratification here, however, is not parti- 
cularly well marked. This neve moulds itself to the greater 
or less inequalities of the plateau, forming large crevasses 



PASSAGE OF THE GLACIEK OF FOLGEFOND. 



137 



here and there ; and the general form of the ground is 
trough-shaped — the two edges of the fond (east and west) 
being commonly higher than the centre, and the centre 
or trough inclining gently to the north. We kept the 
western heights (that is, the side by which we attained 
the snow), gradually ascending. One of the first objects 
I saw was a small but true glacier of the second order, 
reposing on a rock having apparently a very moderate 
slope near the middle of the fond, and connected with 
one of the higher domes of snow to the N.E. It appeared 
perfectly normal, with intersecting crevasses (owing to 
the convexity of the surface on which it moved), some- 
what like the dwarf glaciers of the Trelaporte at Chamouni. 
I think that bare rock, or at least ground where snow 
melts, may be considered as almost a sine qua non for 
a true glacier, whilst a neve may or may not be so accom- 
panied. Wherever we have this, with a good feeder or 
snow valley, and not too great an elevation, and even a 
very moderate slope, there a glacier forms as a matter of 
necessity. I afterwards saw many such in connection with 
the Folgefond. 

Our course on the snow being such as I have already 
described, we had the trough of the neve on our left, whilst 
before us rose low domes of snow, of which, till we suc- 
cessively surmounted them, each appeared to be the last. 
Such a progress is tedious, though not in the slightest 
degree difficult in fine weather 5 but in fog or sleet it must 
be much otherwise, and in truth such passes are obviously 
the most dangerous in such circumstances — the monotony 
of the ground trying severely the intelligence of the guide. 
As we walked along, I heard the roar of a waterfall, as if 
from the snowy ravine on our left, and asked with great 



138 



THE HARD ANGER-FIORD. 



surprise if it were possible that a body of water could exist 
under such circumstances. But in truth it was only the 
sound of a very distant cataract (probably the Skegedals- 
foss on the farther side of the Sor-fiord), carried to the ear 
by a fitful gust of the now rising storm. The highest 
point we reached is called Folgefonds Oer (or ear). My 
aneroid barometer had ceased to indicate correctly, owing 
to a defect of the reacting spring, but, as nearly as I 
could estimate, our elevation was now 4450 feet above the 
sea.° The thermometer was 44° ; the sky was lowering, 
but the distance clear towards the Hardanger-field, where 
the horizon was occupied by many dark and wild moun- 
tains, streaked with masses of snow, the relics of the past 
winter, which yet did not form united snow masses, and 
consequently had a peculiarly dreary and unpicturesque 
aspect. We were as yet little more than half-way across 
the fond, and the cravings of hunger in my companion and 
myself became almost irresistible. Our guides, however, 
eyeing the coming storm, positively refused to halt in the 
midst of the waste, and our provisions were packed up in 
one of the bags which they carried. I suffered simply 
from hunger; but my companion, less inured to such 
fatigues, felt his strength giving way, and having exhausted 
such trifling stimulants as we had about us, his case began 
to assume an alarming aspect, and his exhaustion and 
disposition to sleep so great, that I insisted on Swale 
stopping and unpacking the provisions where we stood. I 

* This result is worthy of little confidence ; hoth it and the last-men- 
tioned (3700 feet) are probably somewhat underrated. The snow line, 
according to Naumann (Reise i. 109), is almost exactly 4000 Rhenish feet 
(4120 English) on the side of the Sor-fiord ; and the highest summit of the 
" fond" Rcgnenuten 5220 Rhenish, or about 5380 English feet. 



ODDE — THE SOR-FIOKD. 



139 



then opened one of Mr. Gillon's excellent cases of preserved 
meat, which my friend ate with appetite, and an immediate 
recovery of the energy which was fast subsiding. Eain 
began to fall before we extricated ourselves thankfully 
from the snow, and began a rude and fatiguing descent 
upon the village of Tockheim on the Sor-fiord, but the 
view was too vertical to be pleasing. When, at last, wet 
and weary, we reached the outskirts of the little hamlet, a 
most characteristic scene took place. Our guide, his son, 
and daughter, deliberately halted by a stream, and 
proceeded to perform their toilet, that they might present 
themselves with an external appearance befitting their 
respectability to the strangers or acquaintances of Tock- 
heim. Remonstrance, my companion told me, would be 
altogether useless, and when gently tried, was rather 
rudely repelled. These worthy folks, although they un- 
questionably found our baggage a somewhat oppressive 
burthen, had loaded themselves besides with various 
articles of dress which were now put in requisition, and 
they entered the village with an air certainly very unlike 
their way-worn appearance a short time previously. We 
then crossed the head of the Sor-fiord in a boat to the 
comfortable inn at Odde, or rather Bustetun, for Odde is 
the name of the church only. 

I had intended next morning to make an excursion for a 
few miles up the valley towards Seljestadt, which is said to 
be extremely beautiful, and perhaps also to the Buer Glacier, 
a small outlet of the Folgefond. But the weather appeared 
so menacing, that, fearful of detention, which would have 
proved inconvenient, I embarked in a boat, with three 
men, to descend the Sor-fiord, and regain the main trunk 
of the Hardanger-fiord, which I had quitted to visit Bond- 



140 



THE HARDANGEE-FIOED. 



huus. The Sor-fiord is nearly straight for a space of about 
20 English miles, and being overhung throughout its whole 
length on the south-western side by the steep mountain of 
the Folgefond rising nearly unbroken from the water's 
edge, it has a severe, almost gloomy, and perhaps monoto- 
nous aspect. But weather, struggling between wet and 
dry, with rolling mists on the hill tops, is not favourable 
for such scenes as these. The Folgefond was, however, 
clear, and I carefully examined the aspect of the snow and 
ice when it appeared. This occurs wherever a valley or 
well-marked ravine runs up from the sea, and there a ten- 
dency to form a true glacier is always observable. The 
largest I noticed was near the hamlet of Moge (so marked 
on Munch's map) ; it has a large stream issuing from it, 
but the glacier terminates at a great height, for the ten- 
dency of the " field" to form longitudinal valleys, as already 
stated, is unfavourable to the existence of snow basins or 
feeders. 

Ullensvang, one of the best known spots in the west of 
Norway, is a village and church most beautifully situated 
on the eastern bank of the Sor-fiord. It lies at the opening 
of a richly-wooded valley, traversed by a considerable 
stream, which forms a picturesque waterfall in the back- 
ground of the landscape, seen from the fiord. The scenery 
recalls that of the Lake of Thun, in Switzerland. The 
church and parsonage, charmingly situated amongst fruit 
and other trees close to the strand, was long the residence 
of Mr. Herzberg, universally known in Norway as one of 
the most benevolent and best informed of the clergy ; but 
he has been for some time dead. The distance from Odde 
to Ullensvang is reckoned at two Norwegian miles, and to 
Utne, at the opening of the Sor-fiord, one mile farther. But 



VOSSEVANGEN. 



141 



it cost us 1\ hours of most patient and laborious rowing ; 
consequently the distances are certainly much under-rated, 
although payment is made strictly according to the dis- 
tances thus counted. Utne is an excellent country inn, 
and would be a desirable centre for excursions on every 
part of the Hardanger-fiord and its branches. Even the 
Voring-foss (a celebrated waterfall) may, it is stated, be 
visited in a long day, including the return ; and the view 
from the Oxebierg, a mountain on the opposite (north) side 
of the fiord, must evidently be very fine, and the ascent is 
said to be easy. 

From Utne we proceeded next morning across the Har- 
danger-fiord to Graven, or rather Eide (where we landed), 
on the way to Voss. This road offers a considerable variety 
of scenery, and, though on no very great scale, is highly 
characteristic of the Norwegian landscape. Several pic- 
turesque waterfalls occurred, adorned with hanging wood, 
and a pretty lake, half a Norsk mile in length, forms part of 
the highway, there being no road along its bank. Near Vosse- 
vangen the country is in some places densely wooded with 
pine, fir, and birch, which are exported in considerable quan- 
tity; in some places it has an open moorland character. The 
approach to Vossevangen is striking. It is an important 
place, forming the centre of a large district, whose inhabit- 
ants have a character of their own different from those of the 
Hardanger on the one side, and the Sogne-fiord on the other, 
and less amiable than either. I had been recommended 
to try Voss, as a better climate than Bergen for seeing the 
eclipse, but it appeared that I should not have gained 
much. The inn at Vossevangen was not so good as its im- 
portant position led me to expect, and the neighbourhood 



142 



THE HARD ANGER- FIORD. 



was also less picturesque than it had been represented to 
me. It being of great importance to me to gain a day, I 
resolved to proceed in the afternoon two stages towards 
Gudvangen, to Vinje, although assured that it was next to 
impossible to sleep there. 



THE FJiERLANBS-FIORD. 



CHAPTER VII. 



THE SOGNE-FIORD. 

VINJE TO GUDVANGEN— THE NARCE-FIORD— SINGULAR AND WILD SCENERY— LEKANGER 
THE SYSTRAND — FJiERLANDS-FIORD AND ITS GLACIERS — REACH STOLUM — THE 
SUPHELLE GLACIER DESCRIBED— ITS REMARKABLY LOW LEVEL— RETURN TO LEKAN- 
GER— STANDING STONES OF NARGLA— SOGNDAL— ANCIENT MORAINE— GEOLOGY AND 
FINE SCENERY— SOLVORN ON THE LYSTER-FIORD — RONNEID — ARRIVE AT JUSTEDAL. 

We were now on the highway from Bergen to Christiania. 
The drive from Vossevangen to Vinje was increasingly 
beautiful. At first we followed the base of extremely bare, 
bleak hills, part of the chain between Vossevangen and 
Bergen, on which the snow lay in great patches in the be- 
ginning of August, at what seemed to me a very low level. 



144 



THE SOGNE-FIORD. 



At Tvinde, the first stage, is a very fine waterfall, and from 
hence to Vinje the scenery was really most beautiful — a 
mixture of verdure, forest, rushing water, occasional 
cultivation, and hills of striking form in the background. 
It reminded me of some of the best scenery of Cumberland 
and Westmorland. It was unfortunately dusk when we 
reached Vinje, and, notwithstanding most unpromising 
accommodation, we managed to sleep well, and pro- 
ceeded next morning to Gudvangen, two stages, the 
scenery of which is justly regarded as amongst the finest 
in Norway. Indeed I had heard so much of it, that I ran 
no small risk of disappointment. The ascent had been 
nearly constant from Vossevangen to Vinje, and the next 
two stages were therefore on a decline, as the level of the 
sea was to be again reached at Gudvangen. We came 
upon a new and beautifully constructed road on the banks 
of a small lake, not far from our night quarters, from 
whence a striking descent, amidst woods and ravines, 
commences, abounding in points of view of the highest 
picturesque, enhanced to the eye of the geologist by 
crystalline rocks of exquisite beauty through which the 
new road makes advantageous sections. They belong to 
what has been called by Esmark the norit formation, evi- 
dently subordinate to gneiss, but in which the felspar is 
pure white, interspersed with quartz and with fine green 
hornblende, and masses of crystalline garnet of a rich 
orange colour, forming a combination remarkably striking. 
Naumann and others have sketched the geology of this 
singular region, but it would probably well repay a detailed 
examination, and suites of specimens of the utmost beauty 
might be obtained with a little patience. 

At Stalheim, the next post, the scene becomes wilder. 



NARCEDAL— GUDVANGEN. 



145 



We are at the head of the Naroedal, one of those singular 
clefts common in Norway, bounded on either side by cliffs, 
usually perpendicular, to a height of perhaps 1500 or even 
2000 feet ; the bottom flat and alluvial, and terminating 
abruptly at the head by a steep, but not precipitous slope. 
Down this slope the road is conducted by a series of zigzags, 
or rather coils, in a masterly manner, through a vertical 
height of 800 feet — a very striking waterfall rushing down 
on either hand, and rendering the view in the opposite 
direction (towards Stalheim from below) wonderfully grand. 
It is generally agreed that no more genuine specimen exists 
of Norwegian scenery than the Naroedal. From the foot 
of the descent to Gudvangen, on the banks of the Naroe- 
fiord, the road is nearly level — the whole descent on several 
miles being little more than 300 feet. The mountains, how- 
ever, preserve all their absolute elevation on either side, 
so that the ravine, though not quite so narrow, is deeper. 
The masses of rock on the right rise to 5000 or G000 feet, 
and a thread of water, forming the Keel-foss, descends a 
precipice estimated at 2000 feet.* 

The arrival at Gudvangen takes one by surprise. The 
walls of the ravine are uninterrupted ; only the alluvial flat 
gives place to the unruffled and nearly fresh waters of this 
arm of the sea, which reaches the door of the inn. After 
dining and procuring a boat and three excellent rowers, we 
proceeded to the navigation of the extensive Sogne-fiord, 
of which the Naroe-fiord, on which we now were, is one of 
the many intricate ramifications. The weather, which had 
fortunately cleared up for a time, was now again menacing, 
and a slight rain had set in when we embarked. The 

* See Murray's Handbook, and Forrester's Norway, where a good view 
of the scene is given, 

L 



146 



THE SOGNE-FIOKD. 



clouds continued to descend, and settled at length on the 
summits of the unscaleable precipices which for many 
miles bound this most desolate and even terrific scene. I 
do not know what accidental circumstances may have con- 
tributed to the impression, but I have seldom felt the sense 
of solitude and isolation so overwhelming. My companion 
had fallen into a deep sleep ; the air was still damp and 
calm ; the oars plashed, with a slow measure, into the deep 
black fathomless abyss of water below, which was bounded 
on either side by absolute walls of rock, without, in gene- 
ral, the smallest slope of debris at the foot, or space enough 
anywhere for a goat to stand ; and whose tops, high as 
they indeed are, seemed higher by being lost in clouds 
which formed, as it were, a level roof over us, corresponding 
to the watery floor beneath. Thus shut in above, below, 
and on either hand, we rowed on amidst the increasing 
gloom and thickening rain, till it was a relief when we 
entered on the wider, though still gloomy, Aurlands-fiord, 
in which the sea had a more natural and agitated ap- 
pearance. It is strange to think that the navigation I am 
describing is part of the regular journey betwixt Bergen 
and Christiania. For ten or twelve hours, and in bad 
weather far more, the traveller is condemned to the ex- 
posure and risk of an open boat, along the precipitous and 
inhospitable shores of the Sogne-fiord, before he regains 
the high road at Laerdalsceren. For all this way, neither 
shelter nor accommodation is provided. 

Our route, however, was not directed to Laerdal. With 
a view to the main object of my journey, I was first 
to explore the glaciers of Fjaerland and Justedal. The 
former are on an unfrequented fiord, branching off from the 
Sogne nearer the sea than Aurlands-fiord. We were to 



GUDVANGEN TO LEK ANGER. 



147 



sleep at Lekanger, a water station on the north side of the 
Sogne-fiord, in that part of it called the Systrand. Passing 
Fresvig on the left, we had a glimpse of green fields, and 
cultivation, and wood, which cheered the eye after the 
wilderness we had quitted. It is stated by Vargas Bede- 
mar,° that near Fresvig is a glacier which I have not seen 
mentioned elsewhere. The weather brightened, and our 
spirits rose as we approached Systrand, and, with the most 
agreeable surprise, I found a thriving cheerful hamlet, and 
one of the best inns I had met with in Norway. I had also 
letters to two official gentlemen, from one of whom, in par- 
ticular, I received the most polite and cordial attentions. 
I regretted here, as elsewhere, that the unstinting hospi- 
tality which introductions everywhere procure in Norway, 
could not be enjoyed by me without sacrificing the great 
objects of my tour; and, in his anxiety to advance, a tra- 
veller ever runs the risk of seeming to undervalue the 
efforts made to induce him to find a home and resting-place 
at every house where he is entertained by those to whom 
such a concentration of purpose appears unnatural, and 
such haste unnecessary. It was with great reluctance, 
therefore, that I had to entreat my kind entertainers, as 
the best proof of friendship, to find the means of forward- 
ing me surely and expeditiously to Fjserland. 

Next morning at eight o'clock we were on board a 
private boat, with three capital rowers, on our way to 
Fjferland. The weather was rather fine than otherwise, 
and, as we pulled against the wind, and close in-shore 
(which, as I have already observed, is the invariable prac- 
tice of the Norwegian boatmen), we had an opportunity 
of admiring the great beauty, and, what in any country 

* Eeise i. 203. 



148 



THE SOGNE-FIORD. 



might justly be called, the luxuriance, of the Sy strand. 
For a space of two miles or more, which separates the 
church of Lekanger from the inn, we passed a series of 
cheerful habitations, interspersed with orchards which are 
celebrated, and in the garden of the parsonage are oak and 
walnut trees of remarkable beauty. We had already ob- 
served, not far from Lekanger, corn crops quite yellow, and 
seemingly almost ripe, in utter contrast to the raw green of 
the scanty corn-fields of Bergen and Voss. Indeed, it is 
certain, though remarkable, that the interior of the Sogne- 
fiord — in the immediate neighbourhood of the highest 
ground in Norway, and of its most extensive snow-fields — 
is, in point of climate, far superior to the coast with its 
incessant rain. Near the church of Lekanger we also 
observed a rude slender obelisk, of a single stone (said to 
be 28 feet high). Such monuments are not unfrequent 
here. They are called "bauta" stones, and were probably 
erected at the places where the courts of justice {Things) 
were formerly held. They occasionally are covered with 
Runic characters, but not, I believe, in this instance. At 
Lekanger and in its neighbourhood I observed well-marked 
terraces parallel to the beach. One of these, I conjec- 
tured (but by mere guess) might be at a height of 120 
feet. Traces of such terraces are to be found in almost 
every inlet of the Sogne-fiord which I have visited. 

After rather a heavy pull against the breeze, we reached 
the entrance of Fjserlands-fiord. Balholmen, on the west 
shore, has some population, but in general the coasts of 
this remote inlet are scarcely inhabited, being steep and 
rocky — not, however, for the most part precipitous — with 
a good deal of wood, entirely birch and alder. At the en- 
trance of the fiord is a salmon-fishing station, such as I 



THE PJiERLA NDS-FI0RD. 



149 



have described on the Hardanger-fiord, and here and there 
a few small huts are scattered on the heights. The fiord 
is long and straggling, but of no great width. The water 
is nearly fresh as in the other deep inlets of this coast, and 
is consequently frozen over during winter, so as to be tra- 
versed in all directions. This is also the case, more or less, 
in the other landward fiords. There appears to be a small 
but regular tide, and sea-weed grows up to the very head 
of the creeks, though the water is so fresh that it may be 
drank without inconvenience. I was curious to know how 
the uniform ice (over which the winter traffic is performed) 
could be maintained in a tidal channel ; but I learned that 
the ice is always more or less detached from the shore, and 
therefore floats up and down with the tide. 

As we neared the head of the fiord, snowy mountains and 
glaciers came into view. These all form part of the great 
snow-bearing range of Justedals Breeen, which runs parallel 
to the Sogne-fiord for a great distance, and divides it from 
the district of Nord-fiord. Into this compact mass of moun- 
tains on its southern side (as will be seen by the map) the 
Fjaerlands-fiord makes a profound indentation. The valley 
of Mundal, which opened on our left, showed some small 
glaciers, and the main head of the fiord divides into two val- 
leys, the left or westernmost of which terminates in the great 
glacier of Boium, of which the upper part is well seen from 
the fiord, descending from the " fond" of Justedals Braeen 
above *, and also contains a smaller glacier, terminating at 
a high level. The other, or eastern valley, contains the 
Suphelle Brae or Glacier, remarkable as being the nearest to 
the sea-level of any in Norway Proper, and indeed, I believe, 
of any in Scandinavia, with the sole exception of the glacier 
of the Jokuls-fiord in Finmarken. It was on this account 



150 



THE SOGNE-1TORD. 



that I had made no slight exertion to reach this spot, 
which has been visited by, I believe, a very few Nor- 
wegian tourists, and perhaps a German artist or two. The 
lower part of the Suphelle Brae can be distinctly seen from 
the fiord. I made a sketch of both valleys in my pocket- 
book, which forms the vignette at the head of this chapter ; 
but, though correct individually, they cannot be simulta- 
neously seen within the horizontal range there represented.* 
We reached Stolum, a hamlet at the highest navigable 
point of the fiord, which was to be our quarter for the 
night, at three p.m., or seven hours from Lekanger, and 
having ascertained that we could be lodged at the house of 
a man named Iver, we proceeded at once to visit the 
Suphelle Brae. The distance was greater than I had been 
led to expect, being considerably above an hour's walk to 
the ice, and everything was drenched by a slight drizzling 
rain. The glacier, however, was quite clear. I sketched 
it from the small hamlet of Suphellen, as seen in Plate VII. 
From hence, as from the sea, the glacier appears as if in com- 
plete continuity with the great snow-field above. It was not 
until (as is my custom) I had mounted some way over the 
ice itself, that I discovered, to my surprise, that a very 
lofty cliff of rock entirely separates the upper from the 
lower glacier, the latter being in fact what is termed by the 
later Swiss writers a glacier remanie, formed altogether of 
icy fragments precipitated by avalanches from the steep and 
pinnacled glacier above. It is an exceedingly remarkable 

* The artist has failed in expressing correctly the left hand part of the 
scene. The glacier of Boium, at the head of the valley in that portion of 
the figure, is obscurely shown, and what appears as the sky line is, in point 
of fact, the lower limit of snow and ice-fields, whose tops were concealed by 
mists. 



SUPHELLE GLACIER. 



151 



arrangement, which has no parallel in the greatness of its 
scale in the Alps ; but it recalls the small glacier remanie, 
which is imposed upon the glacier of La Brenva. Indeed, 
we have only to suppose the declivity down which that 
glacier descends from Mont Blanc to be somewhat greater 
than it is, in order to cause a complete instead of a partial 
separation (for there is an island of rock in the centre of 
it, traversed by avalanches) of the lower from the upper ice. 
Like the small superimposed glacier of La Brenva, the 
Suphelle Brae presents a distinct, though far from delicate 
veined structure everywhere near the contact with the 
surface on which it rests, after the type of ordinary glaciers. 
The upper part of compact whitish ice (like the glacier of 
Bossons) is nearly amorphous. It is dangerous to ascend 
too high, on account of the frequent ice-falls from above. 
I was unable to ascertain clearly whether the upper 
and lower glacier unite in winter. I heard a rumour to 
that effect, but I scarcely think it likely. 

This glacier does not occupy the head of the valley in 
which it occurs, but pours down into it laterally over 
the precipice already mentioned. My guide stated that, 
100 years since, it was much larger, so as to extend quite 
across the valley, thus damming up the river which runs 
through the latter, or possibly letting it pass beneath the 
glacier, as at La Brenva. A large block of stone was pointed 
out to me in evidence of the fact. This tradition corresponds 
with the known increase of size of the Justedal glaciers about 
the same period. A series of moraines mark the successive 
retrogradations of the ice. They are principally composed 
of gneiss. By the aneroid barometer, I estimated the 
lowest part of the Suphelle glacier at only one hundred and 
* Travels in the Alps, chapter 10. 



152 



THE S0GNE-F10RD. 



jive jeet above the level of the sea, the bottom of the valley 
rising almost imperceptibly. 

I had heard from several quarters that there is a pass 
over the snow, from the head of the valley of Suphellen, 
across an isthmus of the great Justedal snow field, to the 
head of the valley of Sogndal (which I afterwards reached 
by a very circuitous sea voyage). This was substantiated 
afterwards by a gentleman of the highest respectability, 
whom I met at Solvorn, and who had made the passage, 
but in the opposite direction, i. e., from Sogndal to Suphel- 
len. He described it as requiring not more than six or 
eight hours, and as unattended with much difficulty or 
danger, excepting only the descent into the valley of Su- 
phellen, which has to be made down a steep couloir of 
snow. This, as alpine travellers well know, is one of the 
most real dangers of snowy regions, and one which, more 
than almost any other, is trying to the nerve of the 
mountaineer. As the ascent, in such cases, is incomparably 
easier than the descent, the passage ought to be attempted 
from Suphellen to Sogndal. 

Having satisfied my curiosity with regard to the glacier 
of Suphellen, I returned by the same way. But when I 
reached the place where the two valleys of Boium and Su- 
phellen divide, it was too late to think of visiting the 
glacier in the former, which the guide told me cannot even 
be seen distinctly, until several English miles have been 
traversed. I therefore returned to Stolum, where my friend 
and I slept in the house of Tver, in rather a primitive fashion, 
but soundly. 

The next morning I had to decide whether to visit the 
Boium's Brae or not. A damp drizzle made me decide in 
flic negative, and we returned in our boat to Lekanger, 



STANDING STONES AT NARGLA. 



153 



where, after hospitable entertainment by the friends to 
whom we had been introduced, we again took boat for 
Sogndal. Notwithstanding the threatening appearance of 
the morning, the day had cleared up beautifully, and now 
we had again really fine weather, which, in a boating ex- 
pedition, is inexpressibly cheering. The barometer, which 
in Norway moves with a suddenness which takes one by 
surprise, rapidly rose three quarters of an inch. Having 
a favourable breeze part of the way, we performed the 
voyage from Fjaerland to Lekanger in six and a half 
hours. The distance to Sogndal from Lekanger is called 
only one and a half Norsk miles, but it took us three 
and a half hours, though we made sail part of the way. 
After again admiring the cultivated and well-wooded shores 
of the Systrand, we sailed under exceedingly bold pre- 
cipices, with here and there ledges of verdure, which we 
were told are reached from above, and regularly cut for 
hay. A pathway also exists all along the apparently 
inaccessible face. We then turn abruptly into the Sogn- 
dals-fiord, which runs N.N.E. off the Sogne-nord, and is 
certainly one of the most pleasing, in point of scenery, 
which I have met with in Norway. We landed at a sort 
of isthmus on the west shore, and traversed it on foot, 
sending the boat round. We thus had the opportunity of 
seeing three standing stones, or bauta stones, near the 
village of Nargla Tune, the inhabitants of which came out 
to look at us whilst I made a slight sketch of the stones, 
with the beautiful expanse of the Sogndals-flord beyond. 
I may mention in passing that the word Tune, for a small 
collection of houses, such for instance as the dependencies 
on a single farm, is evidently the original of the Scottish 
word Toon similarly employed. We were here offered 



154 



THE SOGNE-FIOKD. 



cherries nearly ripe. The fiord was pleasingly wooded, 
chiefly with deciduous trees ; but farther up forests of pine 
extend a long way to the eastward, and timber is a con- 
siderable object of exportation. Few villages in any 
country are more pleasingly situated than Sogndal. Judg- 
ing from the map, I fancied it situated in a rent of the 
mountains like the sombre crevasse of Gudvang. On the 
contrary, I found verdure, cultivation, and undulating hills, 
mingled with rocks and wood. The interior of the village 
scarcely corresponded to its general aspect, but the inn 
proved good. 




SOGNDALS-FIORD FROM NARGLA TUNE. 



Our object was now to proceed to Justedal and its 
glaciers, and for this purpose we were to rejoin the Sogne- 
fiord at its highest branch, which is termed Lyster-fiord, 
and for reasons of convenience we resolved to do so at 
Solvorn, though a little out of the direct course, as I had 
been recommended to a gentleman there from whom T 
might expect useful advice. As we were told that the road 
to Solvorn was good, we ordered, as usual, a car to hold 
two, but we were provided only with a common cart for 



SCENERY AND GEOLOGY NEAR SOGNDAL. 



155 



holding luggage (as every one rides on horseback here), 
and eventually walked nearly the whole way. We thus 
lost something in time, but gained in enjoyment of the 
scenery, which is in the highest degree charming, Swiss in 
character, but on a comparatively small scale. We first 
followed the fiord up to its head at Aaren, and had hardly 
left Sogndal when I was struck by what appeared to be 
evidently a moraine, composed of blocks of a granitic 
rock, greatly resembling at first sight the protogines of 
the Alps, although it contains mica. This rock is most 
widely distributed in blocks over the whole of this country. 
From their extreme abundance in this valley, and also 
at Solvorn, where I collected some of the best specimens, 
I am satisfied that they have their origin in the neigh- 
bouring range of the Justedals Brseen, and have been 
transported by the glaciers which still occur on a small 
scale at the head of these valleys. It is without excep- 
tion the most beautiful Norwegian rock which I have 
seen. Its general hue is red, which arises from the 
felspar, of which the concretions approach to lenticular 
forms ; there is quartz, and a little black mica ; but with 
these ingredients is a fourth, of a pale and pleasing 
green colour, somewhat resembling chlorite, but harder. 
I presume that the source must be an abundant one, or 
perhaps there are several ; for I have traced blocks closely 
resembling these not only to Maristuen on the Fille-field, 
and even to Vang on the Little Miosen lake, not less than 
fifty English miles in a straight line. At Aaren we quit the 
fiord and follow the bank of a fine rushing stream which has 
its origin in the Veitestrandsvand or lake, which pene- 
trates far into the mass of the J ustedal mountains, and has, 
according to Munch's map, a glacier at its head. It is evi- 



156 



THE SOGNE-FIORD. 



dently from hence that the granite just described has been so 
extensively spread abroad. Quitting the bank of the river, 
we ascend a series of zigzags on the right, now a skilfully 
conducted carriage-road, but formerly almost impassable. 
Here we have crags mixed with wood, and enormous blocks 
of granite piled one on the other,* the whole in the style of 
one of the lower Alpine passes, such as the Brunig, and ex- 
ceedingly beautiful. It terminates in a fir wood, whence 
we emerge on the cultivated upland of Hafslo — a populous 
parish, including a lake, on the further side of which stands 
the church. Finally, we had a rapid and picturesque de- 
scent upon the very pleasing village of Solvorn, charmingly 
situated amongst corn-fields and orchards on the Lyster- 
fiord, and overhung towards the north by a vast rocky pro- 
montory with precipitous faces, extending for a mile or 
two its inaccessible cliffs into the fiord. These cliffs (it 
may be mentioned in passing) showed traces of an enormous 
avalanche or detachment of a rocky mass from its face which 
lay in fragments at its foot. The frequency of such recent 
and enormous falls of rock in Norway is very striking as 
compared with any other country which I have visited. 
The precipitousness of the mountains, the abundant mois- 
ture, and frequent congelations are, no doubt, the leading 
causes. 

At Solvorn I obtained information about the valley of 
Justedal, and through the kind assistance of a friendly 
official, dispatched my forbud papers for my journey to 
Christiania the ensuing week. We then took boat to Eon- 
neid (1|- Norwegian miles) where we are at the entrance of 
Justedal, and intended to proceed directly to the praesten- 

* The blocks are of the red granite previously described. The crags 
are of grey granite with a distinct cleavage like the protogine of St. Gothard 



THE LYSTER-PIORD. 



157 



gaard or parsonage for the night. The banks of the Lys- 
ter-fiord are well cultivated wherever the precipices allow 
it. In some instances farms are visible at a great height 
above the sea-level. Captain Munthe's house at Kroken is 
beautifully situated amidst abundant wood and now yellow 
corn. Fruit trees, I believe, abound even up to the high- 
est creek of the Sogne-fiord in this direction, although but 
little distant from the Horungerne, almost the highest range 
in Scandinavia. As we approached Eonneid, we saw at a 
distance behind us, on the opposite side of the fiord, the im- 
posing waterfall of Feigum-foss. At the very moment of our 
arrival, we observed a cavalcade of five persons, already 
mounted, and starting in the direction of Justedal. Two of 
them were English gentlemen whom I had previously met 
at Christiania, and who told me that they had seen the total 
eclipse well at Lserdalsoren. I perceived the impossibility 
of intruding seven persons at once on the hospitality of the 
clergyman at the late hour at which we must necessarily ar- 
rive, and, with some regret, I determined to spend the after- 
noon at Eonneid. This proved to me very nearly the loss of 
a whole day, for which I should have had ample employment 
amongst the glaciers of Justedal ; but it could hardly be 
avoided. I forwarded my letter of introduction, and men- 
tioned that I should go on from the parsonage next day, 
and sleep at the chalets farther up the valley. At Eonneid 

* Until comparatively lately, Sneehattan was considered the highest hill 
in Norway (7300 Nor. feet). Keilhau, I believe, first showed that the sum- 
mits of the Horungerne, and especially the Skagtolstind, approached 8000. 
It is now estimated at 7800 (=8000 Eng.) But the Ymes-field, which 
lies farther east, is now considered the highest, and to be about 8200 Norsk, 
or 8400 English feet. These are, however, only estimations, and are not 
always uniformly reported. I have taken Munch's Statement [Gcea Norve- 
gica, p. 514). 



158 



THE SOGNE-FIORD. 



we found a good clean inn, but expensive for Norway. 
My evening ramble in the neighbourhood did not show 
much new. Granite is everywhere abundant — the rocks 
are all moutonnees, especially in the trough of the valley — 
some fine polished and striated examples occur close to the 
pathway and the river. They are often surmounted by 
transported blocks, also of granite, rounded at the edges. 

The following morning we started on horseback for 
Justedal. The weather was superb and the beauty of the 
ride far surpassed my expectations. It is one of the few 
Norwegian valleys which I have seen really comparable 
to those of Switzerland. Though only a bridle-road it is 
carefully made in all dangerous places and follows through- 
out nearly the course of the river Storelv, a fine torrent, but 
the track at times ascends to a considerable height and com- 
mands imposing views. The valley is everywhere inter- 
spersed with wood, and there are several farms passed, and 
good pasturages. The rocks are generally of granite, some- 
times covered by gneiss, even approaching to mica slate. 
The granite sometimes becomes very compact, passing into 
a kind of porphyry. Distinct marks of glacial action are 
very general. The weather was very lovely, and towards 
noon became almost insupportably hot — the sun being 
nearly as piercing as I ever felt it in the valleys of the 
Alps. 

After four and a half hours of moderate riding we arrived 
at the parsonage of Justedal. We came upon it abruptly, 
having just traversed a picturesque pine wood, and looked 
down upon the church and minister's house lying in a 
confined hollow below us. Yet it is by no means the most 
attractive spot in the valley. The church is built entirely 
of wood, and tarred ; it is in very bad repair, admitting the 



CHURCH AND PARSONAGE OF JUSTEDAL. 



159 



weather in many places, and the snow in winter. Owing to 
the defective and peculiar state of the law in this respect, it 
is nearly impossible to get the necessary repairs made ; the 
churches being generally private property, and a certain 
income is derived from the use of them. The prsesten-gaard 
or parsonage is a comfortable house, and we experienced a 
most friendly reception. But the increasing numbers of 
travellers who annually pour into Norway (especially En- 
glish), make the duties of hospitality somewhat severe in 
this remote valley, where it is next to impossible to find any 
other accommodation ; and the living is unfortunately one 
of the poorest in Norway. Its elevation above the sea is 
460 English feet according to my observations (mean of 
two, going and returning), which is considerably less than 
it has usually been reckoned. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



JUSTEDAL — THE FILLEFIELD. 

THE KRONDAL — GLACIER OF BERSET— ITS VEINED STRUCTURE-DIRT-BANDS— AND PRO- 
BABLE ANNUAL PROGRESS— ITS MORAINES— MODERN DECREASE OF THE GLACIERS OF 
JUSTEDAL— LEAVE THE KRONDAL — REMARKABLE ROCHES MOUTONNEES — NYGAARD 
GLACIER— ITS POSITION AND SIZE — ITS STRUCTURE— COMPARED TO THE SWISS 
GLACIERS— ITS ANCIENT MORAINES— RETURN TO SOLVORN— SCENERY OF THE SOGNE- 
FIORD TO LJiRDALSOREN- CARRIOLE JOURNEY TO CHRISTIANIA— FARTHER REMARKS 
ON TRAVELLING IN NORWAY — CHURCH AT BORGUND — THE FILLEFIELD — LITTLE 
MIOSEN LAKE— ARRIVE AT CHRISTIANIA— RETURN TO ENGLAND. 

Having spent the mid-day hours of intense heat in 
repose, we proceeded on horseback to the glaciers which 
all lie further up the valley. They all descend from the 
range of Justedals Breeen on the west or left slope. The 
first occupies the head of the Krondal, and is sometimes 
called the glacier of Berset. The next is the Nygaard 
Glacier which descends nearly to the main valley of the 
Storelv. Some miles higher up, opposite the chalets of 
Stordal, is the Bibrnestegs-brae° (Bear's path glacier), and 
still higher up, near the origin of the valley, the Lodals 
and Trangedals glaciers. By the former of these two, 
the summit of the Lodals-kaabe, or mantel of Lodal, is 
reached. This latter is an excrescence from the general 
plateau of Justedals Brazen, surpassing it by less than 2000 
* The Faabergstol glacier of Durocher. 



THE GLACIERS OF JUSTED AL. 



161 



feet.* These glaciers are all partially or fully described 
by Bohrf and Naumann in bis Norwegian journey; but tbe 
best account is by M. Duroclier, in a biglily interesting paper 
in the A nnales des Mines^ in which he has clearly expounded 
and ably maintained the viscous theory of glaciers. My 
observations include only the first two of the glaciers already 
named. 

Mr. Heltberg assured me that it was quite impossible to 
pass the night with the least comfort at the hamlet of Elve- 
kroken, just below the larger or Nygaard glacier, and ad- 

* The highest part of Lodals-kaabe is 6400 Ehenish (= 6600 English) 
above the sea. 

f Edin. New Phil. Journal, vol. hi. 1827. 

J Quatrieme Serie, torn. xii. p. 3, (1847). The glacier of Lodal, the 
largest of the group, is thus described : — " The third branch of the Stordal 
is the least inclined ; it is filled by the magnificent glacier of Lodal, which 
follows at first a S.E. and N.W. direction, and faces the S.E. It is the largest 
of Scandinavian glaciers ; it may be compared to that of the Aar in the Alps, 
which it resembles in several of its characters. At its extremity it is in 
great part covered by large blocks, by gravel, and fragments of different sizes ; 
its medial moraine is there considerably widened, and has united itself with 
the lateral moraine of the left bank. The ice is only displayed in the small 
space separating the medial moraine and that of the right bank." The slope 
of the glacier, which is 6° or 7° near its extremity, diminishes to only 3°, form- 
ing a singularly level and united glacier for a distance of 5 kilometres (about 
three miles). It there bifurcates, one branch being almost precipitous. The 
level branch subdivides again higher'up near the commencement of the neve, 
andboth the tributaries become rather steep and traversed by transverse fissures. 
By one of these, the jplateau of Justedals Brasen may be gained, and tra- 
versed in the direction of Nord-fiord. By the other the Lodals-kaabe may 
be ascended, or at least the summit of it nearly approached. The glacier of 
Trangedal appears to be inaccessible, but the surface is nearly clear of stones. 
The glacier of Faaberg has a fine vault like that of the Arveron. M. Dur- 
rocher farther recognises the occurrence of the veined structure of the ice, of 
glacier tables, and gravel cones, as on the larger and more level Swiss 
glaciers. 

M 



162 



JUSTEDAL. 



vised my sleeping in a respectable peasant's house in the 
Krondal, and visiting that glacier in the first instance. 
This we resolved to do, and departed from the parsonage 
when the afternoon was already well advanced, but were 
not a little exhausted by the heat of the day when we 
reached the hamlet of Krone in the lateral valley of the same 
name, after about one and a-half hour's ride. The Krondal 
divides from the main valley of Justedal, and is entered by a 
pass of a striking character amongst intensely abraded and 
grooved rocks, picturesquely interspersed with pine wood ; 
the bridle-way follows the course of a roaring torrent. 
The pines cease immediately after, the Krondal being only 
wooded by birch and alder. On arriving at Lars Krone's 
house (to which we had been recommended,) we found 
accommodation very superior to that of a few nights before 
at Fjeerland. The common room, which serves for sitting- 
room, kitchen, and family bed-room, was certainly not very 
clean, yet had the elements of comfort ; but in a chamber 
up stairs we obtained two clean beds with snow-white bed 
linen, and plenty of milk, nad-brod, and " gammel ost," 
or old cheese, which is generally used as a delicacy in 
Norway. I had hoped to visit the glacier the same evening, 
but found its distance from our abode much greater (as 
usual) than I had been led to expect. I obtained, however, 
a distant view by clambering up the wooded slope of the 
valley to a considerable height, which determined me to 
visit and inspect it next morning. 

The main glacier of Krondal descends from the snow 
plains of Justedals Brasen in a magnificent sheet, remark- 
ably uniform, yet very steep. It is of course much cre- 
vassed; yet I have seldom seen so abrupt an ice-fall so 
unbroken in its character. When it reaches the valley 



"WRINKLES" AND "DIRT BANDS " OF GLACIERS. 163 



it compacts itself, and then commence a series of waves 
and dirt bands in the ice, near twenty in number, which I 
saw beautifully by the evening light, and at a distance of 
several miles. It may be proper to mention that by waves 
or wrinkles we mean alternate ridges and furrows in the ice, 
on a very large scale, and approximately transverse to the 
glacier, or running from side to side, but more forward in 
the centre than at the side, so that their ground plan is con- 
cave to the origin of the glacier : by dirt bands we denote 
bands of cellular or friable ice, in which mud and stony 
fragments find a lodging, and thus faintly discolour the sur- 
face of the glacier in the same wave-like forms as the ridges 
and furrows just mentioned, with which they are so far 
identical that they are found constantly together ; so that the 
" wrinkles" are visible at a distance, mainly by the discolo- 
ration which the "dirt bands" occasion. Accordingly, the 
latter were first observed by me at Chamouni in 1842, the 
former in the following year. I am not prepared to affirm 
that the explanation of this curious phenomenon is clearly 
made out ; but I have elsewhere endeavoured to show that 
it certainly depends upon the laws of motion of the glacier, 
and on the peculiar consistency of the ice of which glaciers 
are composed. It is pleasing to find features long over- 
looked, yet apparently essential characters of a true glacier, 
recognized in regions so remote as Switzerland and Norway, 
and even in the gigantic mountain chains of northern India. 
An example has just come under my notice. Dr. Thomas 
Thomson, in his work on " Western Himalaya and Thibet," 
page 137, thus describes what he saw on a glacier near the 
Parang Pass, in lat. 32^° : — " Little rills of water were, at 
the time we passed, trickling from every part of the surface, 
* See Travels in the Alps of Savoy, 2d Edit, pp. 162 and 167, note. 



164 



JUSTED AL. 



and a small streamlet ran along the edge of the glacier 
under an arch of ice. The structure here was very evident 
— broad white bands and narrower ones of a dirty colour 
from the earthy matter which they had absorbed, ran pa- 
rallel to the slope of the ravine, the arches or loops being 
drawn out to a great length." It will be easily understood, 
therefore, that I was impatient to examine closely a pheno- 
menon of so much importance in identifying the Norwegian 
glaciers with those of the Alps. 

Early next morning I proceeded on foot towards the 
glacier. The way lay through grass fields or meadows, 
usually more or less saturated with wet. We passed seve- 
ral clusters of houses or homesteads, and the scale of the 
scenery was proved by the long time it took us to gain the 
immediate environs of the glaciers. The head of the Kron- 
dal is closed by a perfect barrier of ice, the main glacier 
being formed by the union of three ice streams descend- 
ing from the " fond " above. * Two smaller independent 
glaciers also fall into the valley — the Vetlie Brae on the 
left and the Tveer Braj on the right, as shown in the sketch 
on the opposite page. About 900 yards in advance of the 
glacier is a great moraine, evidently modern. Its limits may 
be at once traced all round, for no birch wood grows within 
them. Beyond a question, it is of the same date with the 
great extension of the Nygaard glacier, presently to be 
mentioned, and of which the date is known. The Tvaer 
Bra2 has a corresponding moraine. These ridge-like accu- 
mulations are called by the peasants Bra>vor, " vor" mean- 
ning an artificial heap. 

The ascent upon the ice of the glacier is exceedingly 

* It is also called the glacier of Berset from the name of the highest 
farm in the valley. 



GLACIEES OF KKONDAL. 



165 



easy ; and I found the veined or slaty structure, universally 
found in the Swiss glaciers, to be developed here in the same 
manner and similarly disposed with reference to the shape 




of the glacier as I have detailed elsewhere in describing 
these. The crevasses are few, chiefly towards the centre of 
the ice, and radiating in the lower part, as in Fig. 2, page 
172 of my Travels in the Alps. The whole indicates a con- 
dition of great pressure from above, derived from the con- 
solidation of the icefall already mentioned, the bottom or 
sole of the valley being comparatively flat. I estimated 
(by the aneroid barometer) the foot of the glacier to be 
857 feet above the church of Justedal, or 1317 above the 
sea. * I traversed the ice nearly along the axis or medial 
line of the glacier until the slope became abrupt, and found 
* Lars Krone's house, where I slept, was 667 feet above Justedal parson- 



166 



JUSTEDAL. 



the absolute height to be 2137 feet. The slope in the middle 
region of the glacier is 7^°; and I had little difficulty 
throughout the greater part of its length in noting the alter- 
nations of compact and veined ice which give rise to the 
" dirt-bands" so distinctly seen from a distance the previous 
evening. I took the opportunity of roughly measuring the 
intervals of those bands by the help of a long staff which I 
carried in my hand. They were, as I have elsewhere 
found, somewhat unequal; but an average of 167.7 feet, 
represents, I have no doubt, very nearly the average 
annual movement of the glacier. It is an interesting thing 
to be able to obtain thus, by a single observation, a result 
which would formerly have required nice precautions and 
a visit to the same glacier in two or more years. 

The morning was intensely warm. It took me five 
hours to walk to the glacier, visit it, and return to Krone. 
I then remounted my horse, and reached the Nygaard gla- 
cier, or rather the part of the road opposite to, and com- 
manding a full view of it, in about an hour. We had first 
of course to retrace our steps into the principal valley of 
Justedal, and then ascend it towards its origin. The road 
is picturesque, and traverses rocks more completely shaven 
and abraded than I have almost anywhere else seen. The 

age, or 1127 above the sea. The following are the barometrical observa- 
tions referred to in the text : — 

Det. Ther. Hourly Var. 

Aug. 7. — Justedal Prasste-gaard, 11 a.m. 29.245 65°.5 A.") 

„ 4^ p.m. 29.17 64. B. J ' UA * 

8. „ „ 8£ p.m. 28.91 57. C. .009 

9. „ „ 9 a.m. 28.90 65. D. insensible. 

Aug. 7. — Lars Krone's house, 6^ p.m. 28.45 58. E. ^ 

8. „ 7 a.m. 28.36 F. j ,UU ' D - 

„ Foot of glacier, 9 a.m. 28.145 56. G. 

Icefall, 9| a.m. 27.32 50. H. 

,, Nygaard gl. lowest part, 3|- p.m. 28.58 56. I. 



NYGAARD GLACIER. 



167 



rock, which is still of gneiss, presents everywhere smooth 
and rounded summits, as conspicuous as those of the Hollen- 
platte, near the Handeck, in the canton of Berne, and not 
less dangerous to the traveller on horseback. It is impos- 
sible to avoid them, and the steep and polished sides of 
these bosses often present no hold to the foot or shoe of the 
horse. They are besides striated, as usual, in the direction 
of the valley. It is a strong presumption (as I have already 
remarked in speaking of the Moranger-fiord) that glaciers 
caused these peculiar forms, that we invariably find them 
increase in perfection and freshness as we approach the seat 
of existing glaciers, and especially in a locality like this, 
exposed to the inroads of ice at once from several quarters. 
Pines are sparingly interspersed amongst the roches mou- 
tonnees^ but cease as we open the lateral valley, almost en- 
tirely filled by the magnificent glacier of Nygaard, down 
which a cold wind continually blows from the immense 
mass of ice and snow which it discloses. 

The Nygaard glacier, which is of great length, descends 
the valley just mentioned by angular zigzags, resembling a 
carefully constructed but gigantic highway, embanked at 
the turnings by its own moraines, and there are three 
such turnings quite distinct, as seen in the sketch, Plate 
VIII. The whole is on a grand scale, and the slope, except 
beyond the highest turning, appears tolerably equable, 
and the glacier is most likely practicable throughout the 
greater part of its length. It is in all probability the most 
regularly developed glacier in Norway. Comparing it with 
the Swiss glaciers, we find it more winding and steeper than 
the glaciers of the Aar and Aletsch, less confined than that 
of Viesch or Miage, and less gigantic and more tortuous than 
that of Zermatt. It somewhat resembles theMer de Glace 



168 



JUSTED AL. 



above Montanvert, but in picturesque effect falls far short 
of it, owing to the want of a fine background, the view here 
terminating as usual in the flat-topped snow-fields of the 
" Fond," a poor contrast to the noble buttresses of the Jo- 
rasses and Tacul, and the pinnacles of Le G^ant and Mont 
Mallet. The lower termination is also quite unlike, for 
the glacier spends itself on nearly level ground at the 
expansion or embouchure of the valley which it occupies. 
And here we have evidence of the immense fluctuations 
in dimension to which glaciers are subject within periods 
by no means remote, probably more striking than is any- 
where to be found in Switzerland, not even excepting 
the case of the glacier of La Brenva, on the south side of 
Mont Blanc, which I have very fully illustrated elsewhere.* 
The most inexperienced eye perceives at a glance the en- 
larged boundaries which the Nygaard glacier has attained 
within no very great range of years. It is as distinct, in- 
deed much more so, than the limit of spring-tides usually is 
on the sea-shore. It is marked upon the rocks far above and 
beyond the present limit of the ice by the clean and fresh 
dressed surfaces they exhibit, of a shade, too, far lighter than 
the lichen-grown and weathered slopes of the mountain 
sides. Where the glacier quits the contact of rock on 
cither side, its ancient limit is marked by the mound of 
fresh coloured debris which it has driven before it to the 
utmost boundary of its overflow, and which remains there 
a monument to future ages of its past extent (like the index 
of a register thermometer pushed on by the fluid which 
cannot recall it a hairsbreadth.) All the semilunar space 
included between this moraine and the existing ice, a plain 

* Travels in the Alps, 2d edition, page 205 ; and 12th Letter on Glaciers 
in Edin. New Phil. Journal, vol. xlii., page 94. 



OVERFLOW OP THE NYGAARD GLACIER IN 1740. 



169 



of enormous extent, is emphatically waste. It is- almost 
level and absolutely covered with rolled stones of every 
size, from that of an egg to blocks of several cubic yards, 
loose and free from any cohering soil — to walk over which 
for such a distance is no agreeable task. Finally, within 
the whole limits just described, there is literally almost no 
vegetation. A few blades of grass or a weed may here 
and there spring up ; but they are imperceptible at any 
distance. Whilst immediately beyond the moraine, vege- 
tation is abundant, and young birch trees are every where 
making their appearance. This gives quite a different tone 
of colour to the glacial soil, and renders the limits as con- 
spicuous as we have described them to be. 

The interval between the present and former limit 
of the ice is stated by Bohr, a Norwegian author, at 
1726 feet, by Naumann and Durocher, at 2000 feet; and 
I should think that it is now even more. The diminu- 
tion of vertical height is estimated by the first-named writer 
at 200 feet. The period of the great extension of the ice, 
which was also very rapid, is well known. It was about 
the year 1740, when the extent of damage to farm property 
by the glaciers of Justedal became a subject of judicial in- 
quiry. With reference to this event, I may mention that, 
when sleeping in Krondal, we learned from our host's 
father, a man named Tygger, seventy-six years of age, that 
his mother's father was possessor of the Nygaard or " low 
farm-house," whose desolation by the encroachments of the 
glacier gave to the latter its name — that upon the destruc- 
tion of their pastures, the family migrated to Krondal, 
bringing, as he affirmed, the timbers of the identical " Ny- 
gaard " with them ; and he showed us what he declared to 
* Bohr in Jameson's Journal, iii. 256 (1827.) Compare Naumann's Travels. 



170 



JUSTEDAL. 



be the original house, which he corroborated by shewing 
that the logs had been cut with numbers for the purpose of 
being put together again after removal. The house was 
small and old enough in appearance. Tygger described 
this occurrence to have taken place 100 years ago, which 
was near enough the mark. I must observe, however, that 
we noticed elsewhere in Krondal a hut with the timbers 
numbered in the same way. 

It would seem, it must be owned, more probable that 
these huts, if removed at all, were rescued from the inroads 
of the glaciers of the Krondal itself. The main glacier, which 
is now 900 yards within its moraines of 1742 (I give the 
date of the judicial inquiry into the damage occasioned by 
it), was estimated by M. Durocher in 1845, to be only 600 
or 700 yards distant from them. His measurement of the 
Nygaard Glacier agreed nearly with that of M. Naumann 
thirteen years earlier. The glaciers of Lodal and Faaberg- 
stol had retreated (as observed by Durocher) 600 or 700 
yards within their moraines, whilst that of Trangedal, 
though almost close to that of Lodal, shows no marks of 
having diminished. The observations previously made on 
the glaciers of Fjaerland and Bondhuus confirm the fact of 
the diminution since a period by no means remote. These 
facts are analogous to those observed in the Alps ; and 
there is even reason to believe that the eighteenth century 
witnessed a considerable and sudden increase of the glaciers 
generally in both countries. But, during the last thirty 
years, there has been a tendency of the Alpine glaciers to 

* I here observe in passing, that the information obtained on this and 
many other occasions from the peasantry would have been entirely lost to me 
but for the companionship of my friend Mr. D., whose presence contributed as 
much lo the intelligent enjoyment as to the material comfort of the journey. 1 



ICE OF THE NYGAAED ULAOIEK. 



171 



increase, which seems not to have been noticed in Scandi- 
navia. Indeed, these oscillations evidently depend some- 
times on causes so local that we cannot be surprised at the 
want of a general coincidence. 

I made the best of my way on horseback across the 
stony desert which separates the roadway from the foot of 
the Nygaard Glacier, slanting towards its southern edge. 
Dismounting, I scrambled along the moraine bordering the 
ice, in company with the man whom we brought from Eon- 
neid, and who said he had been once on the glacier before. 
I proposed to cross it from south to north at a convenient 
place. This is always a matter of some difficulty and 
uncertainty, and but for my geological hammer, which I 
used to cut steps, we must have abandoned it. The cha- 
racter of the ice was very highly crystalline, such as we find 
characteristically in such glaciers as that of Aletsch which 
have run long courses. The ice was very hard, rough, and 
sharp, presenting many angular prominences ; and the sun 
glanced from the plates of crystalline texture in a way 
which I do not recollect to have seen so strikingly except 
in the Swiss glacier just named. Farther, the general sur- 
face of the glacier shewed the gradual obliteration of the 
more salient outlines, which I have particularly noticed late 
in autumn on the Mer de Glace, and elsewhere, as one of 
the most familiar and evident proofs of the "plasticity" 
of the ice of glaciers on the great scale — the ridges be- 
tween crevasses sink, the crevasses themselves are gradually 
cemented by the cohering of the material of the sides bulg- 
ing under their own weight — all the forms pass gradually 
from serrated into undulating. This was so well marked on 
the Nygaard Glacier, that I have no hesitation in conclud- 



172 



JUSTEDAL. 



ing that, notwithstanding the high latitude and the long 
winter, the Norwegian glaciers (I speak now of those not 
within the arctic circle) are in all respects as "viscous" or 
"plastic" as those of Switzerland — in other words, will, 
equality of size being supposed, move quite as rapidly upon 
a given slope. Though I own that this was not my impres- 
sion before I visited them, it is readily accounted for. The 
latitude is greater, but the height above the sea is much less ; 
and even if, as may be admitted, the latter circumstance 
does not increase the average yearly temperature of the 
valleys in which glaciers occur in Norway so much as the 
former tends to diminish it, we are to recollect that the 
summer season is the season of activity in glacier motion ; 
and that the motion in winter, though not inconsiderable, 
will not be very materially affected by the number of de- 
grees which the thermometer falls below the point of conge- 
lation, the more so as the superincumbent mass of snow 
which protects the interior of the glacier from the seve- 
rity of the frost is much greater in Norway than in the 
Alps. A great part of this snow has to be first melted, 
and the glacier must consequently be deluged by water in 
the early part of summer even more effectually than in 
Switzerland. The temperature of the ice is thus rapidly raised 
to 32°, and the softening influence of external warmth (which 
is not a matter of speculation but of fact) must be felt to 
a degree hardly to be paralleled in the Alps. The intensity 
of the heat (whilst it lasts) in the Norwegian valleys is 
almost proverbial. During our stay in Justedal, we felt it 
in its full amount ; but, above all, it is scarcely interrupted 
by nocturnal cold. Daylight never ceases ; the superficial 
congelation which elsewhere arrests, during many hours of 



THE VEINED STRUCTURE OF GLACIER ICE. 



173 



the twenty -four, the circulation of water in the pores of the 
glacier, must be here almost unfelt, and the tendency to 
motion and dissolution must be proportionally great. 

It is an interesting fact that an attempt was made by M. 
Bohr to estimate the amount of fusion of the glaciers of 
Justedal during the period of a summer's day, some years 
before the recent revival of attention to the phenomena of 
glaciers in Switzerland amongst scientific men. He com- 
pared the discharge of the Storelv where it passes the 
church of Justedal in the morning and evening of a hot 
summer's day, and ascribed the difference, or 31,000 cubic 
fathoms of water per hour, or 1860 cubic feet per second, to 
be due to the direct melting of the ice and snow by the 
heat of the sun. 

To return to the glacier itself. Owing to the peculiar 
condition of the ice which I have described, it was not to 
be expected that the veined structure would be strongly 
marked, especially as the glacier, where I traversed it, was 
in the act of spreading itself abroad, ceasing to be confined 
by the walls of the valley ; and, as I have shewn by many 
instances collected in the Alps, the veined or ribboned ap- 
pearance of the ice (giving it sometimes exactly the aspect 
of the finest cipollino marble) is unquestionably connected 
with intense lateral constraint. It was, however, by no 
means wanting, and was well developed near the contact 
of the ice with the soil, on its northern bank. I ascended 
the glacier in the direction of its origin at no great dis- 
tance from the side last mentioned as far as my time would 
permit. I found the ice more level and easily traversed 
as I proceeded, and I should have enjoyed the oppor- 
tunity of prosecuting my walk farther. There did not, 
however, appear any peculiarity requiring, or likely to 



174 



JUSTED AT, 



repay, minute examination, and the day being far spent. 
I returned, gaining the shore without much difficulty, 
but had a fatiguing scramble for a great way over the 
continually rolling stones of the moraine. The lowest 
part of the glacier I estimated by the aneroid barometer 
to be 355 feet above the church at Justedal, or 815 (ac- 
cording to my reckoning for Justedal church, which is 
nearly 200 feet less than that usually given) above the sea. 
At length I reached the dirty hamlet of Elvekroken, nearly 
opposite the glacier, where Mr. D. was waiting for me ; and 
after sketching the glacier from a point a little way on the 
road towards Justedal, I made for the hospitable roof of 
the parsonage as rapidly as the dangerous footing (for a 
horse) of the polished rocks permitted. 

On our return from Justedal to Ronneid, I noticed a fact 
which appeared to me to be incontestible, namely, that the 
level to which the roches moutonnees extend on either side of 
the valley progressively lowers as we approach the sea. 
This fact, which is also observed in the Swiss valleys, is 
held to denote, on the glacial theory, the highest level 
which the glacier at any time attained. From Ronneid we 
took boat to Solvorn. I spent a day of welcome rest with 
my former friendly entertainer there, and proceeded on my 
now solitary journey to Christiania across the Fille-field — 
solitary, because Mr. D.'s engagements at Bergen required 
him to take the steamer from Lserdal to Bergen, which 
sailed this season but once a week. 

I left Solvom in an excellent six-oared boat, upon the 
Lyster-fiord, for La?rdals6ren, with beautiful weather. The 
banks show considerable cultivation on both sides, and I 
now, for the first time, saw barley cut, though it was not 
yet the middle of August ; the crops in the best valleys 



SOGNE-FIORD— AARDAL. 



175 



east of the Fille-field, as well as those of the Hardanger, 
appeared to be three weeks later, whilst (as already re- 
marked) it seemed doubtful whether at Bergen there would 
be any corn harvest at all. The upper part of the Sogne-fiord 
is, therefore, a favoured climate. Very soon after leaving 
Solvorn, the shores assume a severer and even a gloomy 
aspect : habitations become less numerous, then almost dis- 
appear. The coast is almost entirely rocky, composed 
of a nearly white, very slaty quartz rock or gneiss, which 
might sometimes be almost mistaken by its general aspect 
for limestone. Opposite the Aardals-fiord° the wind shifted, 

* The Aardals-fiord leads to some of the wildest scenery of Norway, 
particularly the Utledal, which runs under the eastern flank of the Horun- 
gerne mountains, which separate it from the valley of Fortun and the 
Lyster-fiord. Part of the scenery of Utledal has been visited by Mr. For- 
rester, but a still wilder defile, called Vetties Giel, is described by a Nor- 
wegian clergyman, Mr. Borgeson, in a paper which, though translated into 
English,* is but little known. Notwithstanding evident marks of exaggera- 
tion in the description, there is reason to think that this is the most inacces- 
sible of the inhabited valleys of Norway. For a distance of several English 
miles the path skirts terrific precipices, or is even excavated in their face ; 
whilst at all seasons of the year, except during one or two of the later months 
of summer, masses of hard ice must be crossed by the aid of steps cut with a 
hatchet. In the higher part of this valley the corpses of those who die in win- 
ter are kept in a frozen state until the advance of the season allows them to be 
carried to the grave-yard, or are sometimes tied astride on the back of a sure- 
footed pony ; and, supported by a bag of hay, the dead thus ride to church 
for the last time. It is probable that Pontoppidan refers to Vetties Giel, 
though not by name, in his work, vol. i. p. 58, where he speaks of the wild- 
ness of some valleys in the Bergen-stift. It would be an interesting journey 
for an enterprising traveller to verify these descriptions by ascending the 
Utledal from Aardal, making his way to Vormelid (in Munch's map), and 
thence either to the Laervand, at the foot of the Tmes-field, or across the 
Horungerne to Fortun in Lyster. This last was the dead man's ride. The 
Utledal takes its origin not far from the Store Galdhopiggen or Ymes-field. 

* Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, vol. ix. (1823) p. 299. 



176 



THE FILLE-FIELD. 



from being perfectly favourable, to blowing right a-head, 
and we bad to pull against heavy squalls coming up the 
Sogne-fiord, until we had got opposite Lser dais -fiord, another 
inlet towards the east, so as to be able to hoist sail, which 
carried us towards our destination with a velocity which 
nearly made up for the delay caused by the change of wind. 
I reached Lserdalsoren in 4| hours from Solvorn, and found 
my carriole, which had been sent from Bergen by steam. 

Here ended my tour on the western fiords, which 
extended to almost 50 Norwegian, or 350 English miles, 
chiefly performed by water, and accomplished in twelve 
days. A traveller in search of the picturesque alone, would 
probably omit the Fjeerlands-fiord, and would visit the upper 
part of the Hardanger, called the Eid-fiord, and the Voring- 
foss 5 but otherwise I do not think the tour could be ma- 
terially improved, except by making it more at leisure than 
circumstances permitted me to do.° 

* Summary of a Touk on Hardanger and Sogne Fiords : — 

Norsk Miles. 

Bergen 

Oos 2£ land. 

Teroe 3 water. 

Bondhuus 3 ditto. 

Odde 3 land. 

Ullensvang 2 water. 

Utne 1 ditto. 

Eide 1 ditto. 

Nedre Vasende £ land. 

Ovre Vasende \ water. 

Vossevangen If land. 

Vinje If ditto. 

Gudvangen 2£ ditto. 

Lekanger 3 \ water. 



SOLITARY JOURNEY TO CHRISTIAXIA. 



177 



The concluding portion of my tour in Norway consisted 
of the journey to Christiania from Lterdalsoren across the 
Fille-field, a distance of 29£ Norsk, or 205 English miles, 
which I had to perform alone and by carriole (except a short 
space by water), without any prospect of communicating 
with a single individual by the way, excepting through the 
few words or sentences of Danish which I had acquired. I 
had indeed been nearly in the same plight during part of my 
journey to Throndhjem, but three persons in company 
have a show of physical force, or at least inertia about 
them, which renders it less easy and less advisable to mo- 
lest or impede them than a single stranger. The experience 
which I had gained before stood me in good stead now. 
It may, indeed, seem surprising that I had not made more 
progress in the language, but it is to be recollected, that 
during my long coasting voyage, the officers of the vessel 
spoke excellent English, and during my stay in the Ber- 
gen-stift, my friend Mr. D. (with whom I conversed in 
German) undertook the whole duty of interpreter. I be- 
lieve it may safely be affirmed, that in no country in the 
world (except perhaps Sweden) can a stranger, ignorant of 

I\orsk Miles. 

Brought forward 25§ 

Fjserland and hack 7 water. 

Sogndal ditto. 

Solvorn ll land. 

Ronneid 11 water. 

Justedal and hack to Ronneid , 6 land. 

Glacier and back to Justedal 2 ditto. 

Solvorn from Ronneid ll water. 

Lserdalsoren 2§ ditto. 

Total 481 

The expense for two persons, for twelve days (exclusive, of course, of 
private hospitality), was forty-one dollars. 

N 



178 



THE FILLE-FIELD. 



the language, travel with equal facility and security as in 
Norway. The admirable system of " forbuds,'' for ordering 
horses and accommodation beforehand, renders a traveller 
nearly independent of spoken language ; but it is to the ster- 
ling and still unalloyed integrity and gentleness of character of 
the people at large that he is mainly indebted for the ease 
and agreeableness of his journey. 

My " forbud" papers, as I have mentioned, were care- 
fully drawn up beforehand, with the assistance of a gentle- 
man well acquainted with the road and the best inns. 
I studiously avoided long day's journeys and late hours. 
This is the best security against the only real annoyance 
which is at all likely to occur, namely, the chance of an 
accident or other unavoidable detention. If too many 
stages be crowded into one day, and the vehicle break 
down (no uncommon occurrence with the indifferent 
second-hand carrioles with which most Englishmen are 
contented), the delay necessary for the roughest repair 
(if he is so fortunate as to accomplish it) will, in all pro- 
bability, derange not only that day's journey but the 
succeeding ones ; and thus, whilst he loses all the benefit 
of the " forbud," he must also pay for the detention of 
the horses he was unable to employ. On the other hand, 
if the day's programme be short, he is almost certain 
to make up his lost way by pushing on to a late hour. 
No such misadventure occurred to me, and I kept my pre- 
scribed time for four successive days without, I believe, more 
than about half an hour's deviation, nor had I once to wait 
for horses (except as it happened at Leerdal on starting), 

* In event of a carriole being irreparably damaged, the only alternative 
is to accept any sum for the ruins which a neighbouring postmaster will 
offer, and pursue his journey in the rough cars which are furnished at the 
stations. 



POSTING IN NORWAY. 



179 



which were always standing on the road, even though I 
were before my time. 

This punctuality and consciousness of the importance 
of time, and of knowing habitually within a trifle of what 
o'clock it is, and keeping engagements accordingly, is a 
feature not unimportant, I imagine, in the civilization of a 
people. Although before I travelled in Norway I was quite 
aware of the theory of posting, and supposed that it might 
be maintained with tolerable exactness on a great line of 
communication, such as that from Christiania to Throndh- 
jem, it appeared to me nearly incredible that relays should 
be ready to a minute on unfrequented roads, where days 
may elapse without a single demand for horses, which, 
moreover, must be procured from peasants living often 
five or ten English miles from the post-house. Even the 
road across the Fille-field is so little traversed that now, in 
the height of the season, I did not fall in with a single 
person posting in the same direction, and met but one 
(English) party in the opposite one. The highway in some 
places was nearly grass-grown ; but still the relays were 
always ready, the postmaster or his deputy usually on the 
spot, and (as I was provided with plenty of small coin) the 
settlement was made in a moment, and without remark, or, 
more generally, the money was received with thanks. Not 
the slightest attempt was made on the whole journey (nor 
on any other which I made in Norway) to exact a penny 
more than the legal fare, nor in any way or manner to take 
advantage of a traveller whose helplessness, as regards the 
language, and, consequently, explaining or enforcing his 
rights, was only too palpable. Yet I cannot too strongly 
urge the immense advantage which even the casual tra- 
veller enjoys who has made himself acquainted, however 



180 



THE FILLE-FIELD. 



slightly, witli the Danish language. It is usually con- 
sidered an easy acquisition, especially to one who is con- 
versant both with English and German. I cannot say, 
however, that I found it so. The German word was sure to 
occur where it should have been the English one, and vice 
versa. Besides, there is a large infusion of words resem- 
bling neither language, especially of the shorter ones — pre- 
positions and the like — which give an entirely strange 
sound to the spoken tongue. Unfortunately there is no 
good or even tolerable Danish and English dictionary, nor 
any grammar well adapted to the traveller's use. 

I need not describe minutely my journey from Laerdal 
to Christiania. Mr. Murray's handbook of Norway does so 
with praiseworthy accuracy, though with a strong tendency, 
I must observe, to enhance, even to exaggerate, 'the ro- 
mantic character of the scenery. It must unquestionably 
appear more interesting to a traveller going towards 
Bergen than to one proceeding in the contrary direction. 
There will then be a gradual increase in the sublimity 
of the landscape, and some of the best views will be more 
naturally presented. But to any one acquainted with the 
scenery of the Alps or Pyrenees, or even the best moun- 
tainous districts of Britain, the route of the Fille-field will 
hardly excite much enthusiasm. The most interesting 
points are the old church at Borgund, the pass of the Fille- 
field, the lower part of the Little Miosen Lake, and the Bin- 
gerige. I will say a few words on each of these. The 
church of Borgund is situated near the road on the third 
stage from Lserdalsoren, and is, as usual, nearly solitary. 
It is built of wood, tarred, and is believed to have resisted 
the storms of this inclement sky for six centuries. It is 



BOEGUND CHURCH— SUMMIT LEVEL. 



181 



one of the few remaining specimens of the ancient churches 
of Norway which have a grotesque character almost orien- 
tal. This at Borguncl, and the church at Hitterdal (of 
which a view may be seen in Forrester's Norway), are the 
two best, if not only remaining specimens, except indeed one 
which was removed as a curiosity by the king of Prussia. 
The church at Borgund has a centre and two side aisles, two 
transepts, an apse, a spire, and a covered walk or passage 
surrounding the whole. The interior has something of the 
character of Norman architecture infused into its rude 
wooden fittings ; the exterior is covered with angular 
projections, and surmounted with fantastic crochets and 
ornaments which defy description, and which recall the 
absurdities of some Chinese ornaments. The whole is on a 
considerable scale, and is in perfect repair. It is impossible 
to describe the singular effect which so grotesque an object 
produces amidst surrounding scenery of a remarkably 
severe character. The belfry is a separate wooden tower 
at a little distance from the church, also very peculiar, and, 
it struck me, more pleasing. 

The ascent of the Fille-field is more picturesque in its 
lower than in its higher portion. There are some fine 
passages through ravines and amidst fallen masses of rock, 
quite in the Salvator Eosa style, and which any where but 
in Norway might suggest the notion of lurking banditti. 
The final ascent to Maristuen, and for a mile or two be- 
yond it, is rather monotonous, and the hills are covered with 
snow patches, but not reaching the snow line, have, as 
usual, a dreary aspect. The summit level is a bleak and 
nearly horizontal pass between two ranges of mountains of 
no great height — the road attaining 3900 English feet above 
the sea, and the highest point of the neighbouring range, 



182 



THE FILLE-FIELD. 



being the Suletind, rising to 5890 English feet, which is said 
to command very fine views of the mountains to the north, in- 
cluding the Horungerne and Ymes-field. The road, how- 
ever, does not command any extensive views, being con- 
ducted through a natural depression in the chain. The birch 
disappears at the highest level, but reappears at Nystuen, 
which is very little lower on the eastern side, a comfortable 
inn, situated in a cold valley beneath a crag of black meta- 
morphic rock, with a gloomy lake at a lower level. 

The descent brings us to the upper end of the Little 
Miosen Lake, which is bold but bare. The lower end 
offers a scene of remarkable beauty — especially as seen in 




coming from Christiania ; the lake has contracted to a 
strait, then widened into a lesser basin, whose southern side 
is extremely precipitous, and surmounted by one of the 
steepest highways in Norway.* The rocks are adorned with 

* The state of this thoroughfare a century ago is thus graphically de- 
scribed by Pontoppidan : — " The most dangerous though not the most difficult 
road I have met with in my several journeys in Norway, is that betwixt 
Skogstadt and Vang, in Volders ; along the fresh water lake called Little 



VALDERS— BRUFLAT. 



183 



hanging wood, chiefly spruce fir and birch. Farther on, the 
country becomes more level, and the road passes through 
dense woods of spruce, which pleasingly contrast with the 
bareness of the Fille-field. We are now in the district called 
Valders, a peculiarly peaceful and industrious region, resem- 
bling in many respects some of the lower parts of Switzerland, 
to which the number of goodly farm-houses, with extensive 
barns and out-buildings, in some measure contributes. The 
peasants are civil, and primitive both in manners and dress ; 
the horses excellent. The crops of oats and barley were 
abundant though late. There is also much pasture, and 
cultivated ground is everywhere interspersed with fine woods 
of fir. The road pursues for a great way the banks of two 
lakes, the Slidre and Strand fiords, which are only mode- 
rately picturesque. Though well kept, it is exceedingly 
little travelled, and the unnecessary ascents and descents are 
countless. Below Strand-fiord the river makes repeated 
expansions into small lakes, the declivity being inconsider- 
able ; and after the station of Frydenlund we quit altoge- 
ther this valley, which we have followed since Nystuen, 
and pass a low col covered with spruce fir, and after a most 
rugged ascent and descent find ourselves at Bruflat in a very 
picturesque valley leading to the Eands-fiord, a fine expanse 

Mios, the road on the side of the steep and high mountain is in some places 
as narrow and confined as the narrowest path, and if two travellers meeting 
in the night do not see each other soon enough to stop where the road will 
suffer them to pass, it appears to me that they must stop short without being 
able to pass by one another, or to find a turning for their horses, or even to 
alight. The only resource I can imagine in this difficulty is, that one of 
them must endeavour to cling to some corner of this steep mountain, or be 
drawn up by a rope if help be at hand, and then to throw his horse down 
into the lake, in order to make room for the other traveller to pass." — Pont. 
i. p. 59, Note. 



184 



THE FILLE-FIELD. 



of water, some 40 English miles in length. The scenery 
between Bruflat and the lake, consisting of wood, crag, and 
river, was amongst the prettiest of its kind which I saw on 
my journey ; the whole reminded me strongly of Styria 
and Carinthia, where the spruce fir grows in similar pro- 
fusion. The character of the people in this valley seems 
far less genial than in the district of Valders. The Rands- 
fiord is a striking piece of water, and its banks appear in 
many places highly cultivated, and populous for Norway. 
I sailed down it on board of a steamer, but, unfortunately, 
in a torrent of rain. I then traversed the picturesque district 
of the Ringerige and Krogkleven also in pouring rain, but 
the following day had fortunately fine weather as I regained 
the banks of the Christiania-fiord, and with pleasure found 
myself once more in the cheerful and hospitable capital of 
Norway. 

At Christiania I was fortunate in meeting many friends, 
both Norwegian and English, which proved a welcome 
change after a long comparative solitude. I returned to 
England with little delay, except a day or two spent at 
Copenhagen in visiting its interesting collections and de- 
lightful neighbourhood. I crossed the North Sea from 
Hamburg to Hull. 



CHAPTER IX. 



ON SOME POINTS IN THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 
OF NORWAY, 

CHIEFLY CONNECTED WITH ITS SNOW-FIELDS AND GLACIEKS. 

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. § 1. ON THE CONFIGURATION OF NORWAY— ITS GROUND PLAN 
— ITS MOUNTAINOUS DISTRICTS OR FIELDS ARE USUALLY PLATEAUX— LARGE PROPOR- 
TION OF ELEVATED AREA— THE KJOLEN MOUNTAINS— THEIR EXISTENCE DENIED BY 
SOME GEOGRAPHERS— THREE SECTIONS OF NORWAY. § 2. ON SOME PECULIARITIES 
OF THE CLIMATE OF NORWAY— LESS SEVERE THAN COMMONLY SUPPOSED, OR THAN 
ANY OTHER LAND IN THE SAME PARALLEL— THE CAUSES OF THIS— THE SUMMER 
AND WINTER CURVES OF EQUAL TEMPERATURE— CONTRAST OF THE TWO SIDES OF THE 
PENINSULA. § 3. ON THE POSITION OF THE SNOW-LINE IN NORWAY— MAINLY DETER- 
MINED BY THE SUMMER TEMPERATURE— PARTICULARS OF OBSERVATIONS ON THE 
SUBJECT— ON THE LIMIT OF GROWTH OF THE BIRCH— INFLUENCE OF THE SEA IN 
DEPRESSING THE SNOW-LINE— TABLE OF RESULTS. 

Amongst the many questions with which a stray tra- 
veller is sure to be addressed by the peasantry of a remote 
country, one of the most puzzling to answer is, as to the 
pleasure or information he can find in looking at their hills 
and waters, and woods and snows. Has he not enough of 
such things at home ? What value have stones and plants, 
which lies utterly concealed from the eyes of the inhabi- 
tants, to whom they belong, but which can tempt the 
wealthy stranger to lose his time, his money, and his com- 



186 



ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORWAY. 



fort, in examining, perhaps in collecting them.* The 
naturalness of the enquiry, the reality of the paradox, 
makes the answer often difficult. There are very many 
persons of opportunities far superior to these poor peasants, 
who can form nearly as little idea of the motives for such 
toilsome journeys. To them, the country is the country 
everywhere, its stones are stones merely, its glaciers and 
its lakes are accidents, which suggest no particular conclu- 
sions except as they give a momentary variety to the land- 
scape, or as they affect the value of the soil. 

What comparative anatomy is to the study of living 
beings, physical geography, or the comparison of different 
countries, is to the study of the earth we live on. The 
interest of each part is beyond measure increased by com- 
paring it with other parts ; and the more such comparisons 
we are enabled to make, the more distinct meaning can we 

* The inability of the peasantry to ascribe any other motive than 
interest or compulsion to such journeys, is amusingly experienced by every 
traveller off the beaten tracks, in the theories which are formed as to his 
vocation. This is nowhere the case more than in the more secluded parts 
of France. I once amused myself by reckoning up the conjectures as to my 
business, and the motives ascribed to me, during a journey of no very great 
extent, which included, as well as I recollect, the following, besides guesses 
nearer the mark : — An engineer of mines, a government surveyor, a garde 
forestier, a tax-gatherer, the descendant of a confiscated noble of the first 
revolution surveying his paternal acres, a criminal escaping by bye-paths 
from justice, an iron-merchant, a stone-mason, and a gold-finder. Of these 
various aliases the last is probably the most inconvenient. I recollect 
travelling through the mountains of Cogne with a half-witted fellow, a sort 
of cretin, for a guide, who, after hearing all the explanations I had to give of 
my journey, constantly returned, with a malicious leer, to the loss the country 
suffered by ignorance of the treasure which lay about in it, particularly 
under the glaciers, and which more knowing strangers assisted, he insinu- 
ated, by mystic arts, could turn to an excellent profit. 



OROGRAPHY. 



187 



attach to even a few slight and seemingly isolated observa- 
tions in a country wholly new to us, as when Owen repro- 
duces the skeleton of a long extinct bird from a few imper- 
fect bones brought from the Antipodes. 

To construct the orographical map (map of mountainous 
regions) or skeleton of a country, is a more difficult task 
than it might at first appear to be. The materials for a com- 
plete relief or model exist for but a few very limited portions 
of the globe. The materials for maps are gathered from com- 
paratively limited observation. The tact necessary for per- 
ceiving the peculiarities of the configuration of a country 
is only to be acquired by practice ; and, when acquired, it 
leads to skilful and interesting generalization. A general 
commanding an army, a geologist exploring a district, and 
a foxhunter pursuing his sport, each in their way acquire a 
facility analagous to that of the comparative anatomist just 
referred to, in apprehending the whole from a part, in pre- 
dicting what will be the probable course of a mountain- 
ridge or of a river which he has not yet seen, and in find- 
ing a practicable passage across an intricate and difficult 
country by which even a native might be bewildered. 
Since then even the mere basis or skeleton of a country 
possesses so much distinctive character, and offers so many 
subjects of interesting contrast and comparison, it is very 
obvious that the details of structure, as well as of the 
various plants which embellish it, animals which live 
upon, as well as rational beings which people it, with their 
peculiarities of occupation, habits, and dress, furnish an 
exhaustless field in which the most restless curiosity may 
expatiate. But to explain all these sources of interest to 
the more ignorant class of peasantry is impossible, though 
here and there intelligent men may be found, even in the 



188 



ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORWAY. 



humblest class, and in all countries, who possess that spark 
of divine mind which only requires to be roused, and 
which sometimes unexpectedly responds to the well-meant 
effort of the traveller to enlighten him as to his occupations 
and interests. 

The only part of the physical geography of Norway of 
which I intend here to offer the slightest sketch, is what 
regards the distribution of perpetual snow and of glaciers, 
being the objects of my chief observations recorded in the 
preceding pages. A comparison in this respect with the 
Alps offers much interest, and though my contribution 
may be slight and inconsiderable, it will, I am persuaded, 
lead the way to systematic enquiry by those more favour- 
ably placed for pursuing it. Norway itself assuredly does 
not want for persons thoroughly qualified to obtain and 
make use of the information thus desired. 

The existence of perpetual snow, the elevation at which 
it begins above the sea level, and the formation of glaciers 
depending for their origin and nutrition upon these snow- 
beds, are complicated phenomena referrible by analysis to 
a variety of causes or conditions. Of these, the most im- 
portant are the configuration of the soil, and the climate, 
which last is itself a complex and somewhat undefined 
fact. 

I shall, for greater distinctness, reduce my remarks to 
different heads ; and under some of these I shall endeavour 
to classify several of the facts incidentally referred to in 
the previous chapters. 



ON THE CONFIGURATION OF NORWAY. 



189 



§ 1. On the Configuration of Norway. 

As there are few parts of the world where snow lies in 
summer at the level of the sea, the existence of perpetual 
snow depends in Norway, as elsewhere, upon the greater 
or less elevation of the mountains. The general height 
of mountains in Scandinavia is inferior to that of the 
Alps, Andes, Caucasus, or Himalaya, and is therefore 
so far in accordance with the generally received opinion, 
that the elevation of the land diminishes from the equator 
towards either Pole. The highest ground in Norway is 
8500 feet above the sea level, in latitude 61^°; but whilst 
the country is justly accounted a mountainous one, it is so 
rather in respect of its general elevation, than from the 
conspicuousness of its isolated summits. Sweden is com- 
paratively low and tame ; Norway defends it, like a huge 
breakwater, from the invasion of the North Sea, whose 
force is indeed still tremendous, but which, from the traces 
of former convulsions, would appear to have been the seat 
of powers still more energetic. The ragged outline of the 
coast, the depth of its inlets or fiords, the boldness of its 
headlands, the multitude of its islands, often almost undis- 
tinguishable from the mainland, are facts familiarly known. 
They seem to show that the boundary of sea and land has 
been decided only after a prolonged struggle, and that great 
masses of the latter have gradually been undermined or 
abraded, so that a tolerably permanent condition has only 
been obtained when, after the crumbling of lesser obstacles, 
the mountains themselves have become the buttresses of 
Scandinavia. 

The configuration of Norway may be conveniently con- 



190 



ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OE NORWAY. 



sidered in two portions ; the comparatively narrow district, 
extending from near Throndhjem to the North Cape, a dis- 
tance of above 600 English miles, and the more expanded 
part, 400 miles in its greatest dimension, from Throndhjem 
to the Naes of Norway. Throughout the former, the moun- 
tains cling, as it were, to the coast ; and the boundary be- 
tween Sweden and Norway is only one-fourth of the breadth 
of the peninsula distant from the North Sea, which yet in- 
cludes all the more considerable elevations. South of the 
Syl-field (lat. 63°) the high ground occupies by far the greater 
part of the breadth of Norway in its widest extension, and 
fully half the breadth of the peninsula in the parallel of 
the Dovre-field. This is due chiefly to the expansion of 
the coast to the westward, where mountains of enduring 
crystalline rocks form that prodigious lobe of land dividing 
the North Sea from the Skagerack, which, bearing the whole 
brunt of forces which appear to have come from the north, 
not only defended the entire North of Europe from the 
shock, but probably furnished by their attrition the ma- 
terial of which the low grounds of the continent of Europe 
are mainly composed. 

In this general disposition of the mountainous masses 
of Norway we see a strong analogy to the west coasts of 
our islands, and likewise to those of North and South 
America. It appears almost certain that a common cause 
has devastated the western shores of nearly every con- 
tinent. 

The forms of the Norwegian mountains have been very 
generally mistaken by geographers. They do not consti- 
tute either unbroken chains rising from the low grounds 
and forming a ridge, nor are they a series of distinct de- 
tached elevations, but, in the southern division of the coun- 



THE FIELDS OE FJELDS 



191 



try especially, they form plateaux, or table-lands, of great 
breadth, and generally more or less connected together, 
though occasionally separated by deep but always narrow 
valleys. In the description of the view from Sneehattan, I 
have endeavoured to convey a clear idea of these wonder- 
ful expansions of mountains, often so level, that upon what 
may almost be called their summits a coach and four might 
be driven along or across them for many many miles, did 
roads exist, and across which the eye wanders for immense 
distances, overlooking entirely the valleys, which are 
concealed by their narrowness, and interrupted only by 
undulations of ground, or by small mountains which rise 
here and there with comparatively little picturesque effect 
above the general level. 

These table-topped mountains are the Fields, or more 
properly Fjelds, of Norway, which in their less interrupted 
or more elevated parts have acquired specific names. 
They have been very erroneously supposed by map- 
makers to form a continued ridge serpentining through the. 
country, though preserving a general parallelism to the 
coast, of which the chief (from north to south) are the 
Dovre-field, the Lange-field, the Sogne-field, the Fille-field, 
and the Hardanger-field. 

The error in question is easily traced to the usual 
method of constructing a map from rude and imperfect 
observations. The river-courses are first determined with 
a certain accuracy, and from analogy (rather a precarious 

* The river-courses preserve a surprisingly exact parallelism on the 
south-eastern slope of the peninsula, from the Skagerack to near the head 
of the Gulf of Bothnia. The direction of these lines of fissure is about 
30° with the meridian in Southern Norway, but above 40° in Lapland. In 
neither case, probably, does it coincide with the direction of greatest decli- 
vity of the general surface of the continent. 



192 



ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORWAY. 



one, however) with other countries, the origin of these is 
traced to a watershed or ridge, assumed to be comparatively- 
narrow, along which the chief summits are to be sought, 
and supposed to be extended merely by spurs, or lateral 
ranges of small extent between the valleys. To such a 
theory, the construction of the common maps of Norway 
may be easily traced, and the tradition of this unbroken 
chain may be found in nearly every map. 

Thus the general surface of the country is in reality com- 
posed of elevated and barren table-lands. The proportion 
of arable land (land which might be tilled), to the entire 
extent of Norway is not, according to the competent 
authority of Professor Munch, more than 1 to 10 ; and 
if we exclude a few local enlargements of the plains 
near the capitals, it would not even exceed 1 to 100. 
By a rude estimation on Professor Keilhau's map, I find 
that the portion of the surface of Norway south of the 
Throndhj em-fiord which exceeds 3000 feet above the sea, 
amounts to very nearly 40 per cent, of the whole ; and 
when it is recollected that only one summit exceeds 8000 
feet, and that the spaces exceeding 6000 are almost inap- 
preciable on the map, it will be more clearly understood 
how completely the mountains have the character of table- 
lands, whose average height probably rather falls short of 
than exceeds 4000 feet.° 

The centre of gravity of the elevated country preserves 
a rough parallelism to the coast, although from the pro- 
digious indentations made by the larger fiords, the bases of 
the higher mountains are often washed by salt, or at least 
brackish water. Of the outlying portions which approach 

* These estimates refer to German or Iihcnish .feet, which are ahout 3 per 
cent, longer than English. 



KJ0LEN MOUNTAINS. 



193 



nearest to the sea, the most remarkable are the mountains 
of Justedal and the Folgefond, both of which are covered 
with perpetual snow. 

In the northern district of Scandinavia, where the 
theory of a ridge is in some respects less inaccurate than 
in the south, its insufficiency was clearly discovered by the 
difficulty or impossibility of defining the line of demarca- 
tion between Norway and Sweden by that of a continuous 
water-shed. Such a ridge, if it exist at all, must be held 
in some cases to run up to the very coast of Norway, or 
even beyond it into the islands ; in other places it dies 
out altogether, and is resumed with a change of direc- 
tion. The present boundary between Norway and Sweden 
was defined by a joint commission of engineers in the 
middle of the last century, and is represented on nearly 
every map as the exact direction of a slightly zigzag chain 
of mountains, called the Kjolen or Koelen. This is as- 
sumed, in most maps, to be prolonged along the border of 
the two countries considerably to the south-east of Throndh- 
jem, and it was even long maintained that a mountain 
mass existed there of prodigious elevation, from which a 
great many rivers, particularly the Glommen, the Gota, 
and the Dal, take their rise. The height of this fabulous 
mountain was even assumed to be 12,000 feet. It is, how- 
ever, only a slight and lower extension of the plateau of 
the Dovre-field beyond the deep valley of the Glommen, 
and its greatest height does not amount to 5000 feet. 

* Pontoppidan was not unaware of this, for he states, that in Finmark 
the Koelen ridge in many places breaks into large valleys, and consequently 
is not so continued as farther towards the south, and that it seldom reaches 
above 4 leagues in a continued chain. — Nat. Hist, of Norway, i. 40. 
The worthy Bishop of Bergen, though not unjustly accused of credulity, 
M r as evidently well read in the science of his time in several departments. 

O 



19 JL 



ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORWAY. 



Perhaps, however, those Scandinavian geographers go 
too far who insist that the existence of the Kjolen is purely 
mythical, and that they must be "hunted and expelled" 
from our maps. The able researches of Wahlenberg, 
Keilhau, Vibe, and Munch, and the improved charts of the 
coast, have thrown the greatest light on the form of the 
country. The contoured map of Keilhau, though of course 
in many places conjectural, gives ns a tolerably accurate 
picture of the general relief; and though the Kjolen range 
be broken, sometimes almost annihilated, now pushed in- 
land, and now bounding the very shore (as at Fondal, lat. 
66^°, and Lyngen, lat. 70°), it must, I think, be admitted, 
that it is worthy of being classed amongst mountain 
ranges. It has not in the far north the peculiarly tabular 
form of the southern mountains, and is distinguished by 
many summits of noble forms, and a grandeur dispropor- 
tioned to their absolute elevation, as the Seven Sisters, the 
Lofoddens, and the Pippertinderne. It attains its greatest 
elevation (I speak now of the northern division), at Suli- 
telma, in lat. 67|°, being no less than 6200 English feet. 
Sulitelma is not an isolated mountain, but forms part of a 
wild and extensive group, first visited 'and clearly de- 
scribed by Wahlenberg, who justly characterises it as the 
centre of the Alps of Lapland. 

It is true that there are at intervals passes across the 
Kjolen mountains which are extremely low. Such is the 
frequented road from Throndhjem to Sundsvall on the 
Baltic, the ascent of which is everywhere easy, and Avhich 
attains a height of only 2000 feet above the sea. About 

* Wahlenberg, surely a most competent authority, continually speaks of 
the " alpium jugum " in describing the eourse of the mountains between 
Norway and Sweden. 



DISTRIBUTION OF MOUNTAINS. 



195 



lat. 64°. 3 there appears to be a distinct depression in 
the chain near the Namsen river. In lat. 6 8°. 3, which 
is that of the Lofoddens, there is a pass across the penin- 
sula by the lake of the Tornea Trask, which is elevated no 
more than 1300 French feet, whilst the well known track 
from Alten to the head of the Gulf of Bothnia, by Kauto- 
keino, does not exceed 864 French feet, according to Von 
Buch, and beyond this the mountains never resume their 
continuity. A detached summit (Rastekaise) reaches 2700 
feet ; the North Cape itself (on the island of Mageroe) 
attains little more than 900 feet. From this point east- 
wards the country becomes tame and level, nor do the 
northern parts of Russia or Siberia offer, probably, any 
considerable elevations, with the exception of the more de- 
pressed part of the chain of Oural. 

That the elevation of the Kjolen mountains is the result 
of forces exerted parallel to an ideal axis, is illustrated by 
the general uniformity of the declivity on the side of Lap- 
land. A very remarkable chain of lakes, one or more of 
which occur upon almost every river emptying itself into 
the Bothnian Gulf, and nearly equi-distant from the coast, 
at a level also tolerably uniform, it is believed, at from 1200 
to 1500 feet, point out a symmetry in the fall of the ground 
throughout nearly the whole extent of the peninsula. 

The map which accompanies this work, though on a 
small scale, has been constructed with great care from a 
variety of authorities, principally Norwegian. An attempt 
has been made to represent the elevated plateaux which 
constitute the high land of Norway, and to annihilate that 
stiff ridge of mountains which figure in almost every map 
from the Lindesnses to the North Cape. 

I close these remarks by referring to three sections 



196 



ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORWAY. 



which I have carefully made from the best data I could find, 
and chiefly from the map of Keilhau already referred to, 
showing the transverse section of Scandinavia at three 
characteristic places — the first or most northern (corres- 
ponding to the line A B on the general map), is from the 
Bergs-fiord, in lat. 70°.2, to Tornea, at the head of the Gulf 
of Bothnia. Here the axis of the range has entirely passed 
to the coast. The second section (from C to D on the map) 
passes through Throndhjem and part of the Syl-field to the 
Gulf of Bothnia, about 2° north of Stockholm. The third 
section, E F, is made to pass through some of the most ele- 
vated ground in southern Norway, including the Justedal 
mountains and the Fille-field. It begins at the conspicuous 
headland of Stadt, on the western coast (lat. 62° 10'), and 
terminates at Drammen, on a branch of the Christiania- 
fiord, being very nearly parallel to the marked direction of 
the river courses of Norway already referred to. In all these 
sections, the elevations are to the horizontal measures in the 
proportion of about thirteen to one. These are all prominent 
sections. They show the character of the elevations when 
well developed. That there should be profound valleys 
intersecting the mountain ranges, or even occasional dis- 
continuities, cannot fairly be urged against the existence 
of mountain chains altogether. Though the boundary 
of Sweden and Norway be often fanciful, and the maps 
founded on its supposed physical meaning be egregiously 
wrong, a certain continuity of elevation is still to be 
observed. And indeed the same error, which has prevailed 
in maps of Scandinavia, applies in a measure to those 
of better known countries. The construction of maps by 
river courses instead of by lines of elevation is general; 
and geologists are well aware that even the chain of 



198 ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORWAY. 

Alps, which is remarkable for its continuity, is arranged 
in groups rather than in a defined ridge. Many of the 
passes seem to let the traveller through the chain as it 
were by stealth, and really mark the boundary between 
two conterminous blocks of mountain, or massifs, as they 
are termed by foreign writers. Such is the pass of the 
Little St. Bernard as well as the Col de la Seigne, and still 
more strikingly that of the Finstermunz in Tyrol (Eeschen 
Scheideck, 4600 feet), between the huge Oertler Spitz and 
the glacial mountains of the Oetzthal. Some of the 
highest and most imposing summits, instead of occupying 
the crown of the ridge, are found in lateral subordinate 
ranges, or even in the mere spurs or offsets of the great 
chain of Alps. Such are the massifs of Mont Pelvoux in 
Dauphine, 13,500 feet above the sea, communicating with 
the Cottian Alps by the Col de Lautaret, which is only 
6700. Such the entire range of the Bernese Oberland, 
whose culminating point is 14,100 feet, and whose isth- 
mus is the Grimsel (7200 feet) ; and such the majestic 
summits of Mischabelhorner, forming a mere outlier of 
Monte Rosa, between the narrow valleys of Saas and Zer- 
matt, which, though almost unseen by tourists, are giants 
of the second class. Dr. Thomson, in his lately published 
and curious work on the Himalaya, justly remarks that the 
universal notion of parallel and continuous mountain ranges 
is to a great extent a delusion of perspective. 

§ 2. On some Peculiarities of the Climate of Norway. 

The time can hardly be said to be gone by when an 
erroneous belief was prevalent as to the utterly inhos- 



THE MEAN TEMPERATUHE. 



199 



pitable climate of Norway. Bishop Pontoppidan cites 
the amusing mistake of our English Bishop Patrick, who 
describes a Norwegian as imagining a rosebush to be a 
tree on fire; whereas roses are common flowers in many 
parts of Norway. He farther adds that the harbour of 
Bergen is not oftener frozen than the Seine at Paris, that 
is, two or three times in a century, whilst the harbours of 
Copenhagen and Lubeck are frequently blockaded with 
ice. This he justly ascribes to the influence of the open 
sea. A still more singular fact is, that the smallest piece 
of drift ice is unknown on any part of the Norwegian 
coast, though it extends to lat. 71°, while off the coast of 
North America they are occasionally seen in lat. 41°.* 
Until a comparatively recent period, it was generally be- 
lieved that the temperature of the North Pole was 32°, of 
the Equator about 86°, on an average of the year, and that 
every place had an intermediate temperature depending 
solely on its latitude. The influence of sea or land in great 
masses in altering the climate — the former as a general mode- 
rator of extreme heat and cold, the latter in increasing the 
inequalities of climate — was next perceived, and the inflec- 
tions (as they are called) of the isothermal lines were clearly 
indicated by Von Humboldt. The isothermal lines are lines 
which pass through all points of the earth's surface in each 
hemisphere which possess the same average temperature. 
If the temperature depended solely on the latitude, they 
would form accurate parallels of latitude. But as the con- 
tinents are hotter than the ocean between the tropics, and 
colder in higher latitudes, the lines of temperature have a 

* See the limit of drift ice indicated in the vignette map accompanying 
the General Map of Norway in this volume. 



200 



ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGKAPHY OF NOB WAY. 



descending loop over the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans in the 
former circumstance, and an ascending one in the latter. 
Thus, for example, the isothermal line of 40° Fahr., which 
passes nearly over Throndhjem in Norway (lat. 63°), and 
attains perhaps the 66th degree of latitude over the Atlantic, 
falls to the 48th degree in Canada (a little north of Quebec), 
and to the 50th or lower in the eastern parts of Asia, but 
rises again under the influence of the Pacific Ocean to about 
60° of latitude on the western coast of North America. 

A farther step in these important and curious generali- 
zations (which are due primarily to Von Humboldt), con- 
sists in distinguishing the summer and the winter curves of 
temperature, which have an important bearing on the 
existence of perpetual snow and glaciers. Places with the 
same average temperature may be yet, the one temperate and 
wholesome, the other nearly uninhabitable from extreme 
cold during winter, which is compensated by the almost 
tropical heat of the summer months. Thus whilst at 
Throndhjem the difference of temperature of January and 
July is 40° Fahr., at Jakutzk, in Siberia, which is nearly 
on the same latitude, this difference amounts to 114°, and 
mercury is sometimes frozen for three months of the year. 
In the Faroe Islands, on the other hand, the climate of 
which is perfectly insular, the variation between January 
and July is only about 18°. 

Whilst, then, Norway enjoys an average climate superior 
to any other continental country in the same latitude, it is 
also, on the whole, less visited by extremes of summer 
heat and winter cold. No doubt the different portions of 

* See the map of Isothermal Lines in Berghaus' and Johnston's Physical 
Atlas, or in the aeat and cheap maps published by the National Society. 



THE GULF STEEAM— ITS EFFECTS. 



201 



the country vary strikingly in this respect, the coast pos- 
sessing the moderate or insular character, the interior or 
Swedish side a much severer one ; still, on the whole, 
the statement is true. It is vividly represented by the 
isothermal lines for January and for July, drawn by Pro- 
fessor Dove of Berlin, and copied in the small chart which 
occupies one corner of the map accompanying this work ; 
which at the same time shows the general position of 
Norway relatively to other countries, where it is ob- 
servable that the northmost portion extends as near the 
Pole as the centre of Greenland. The blue curves which 
pass through places believed to have the same mean 
temperature of the month of January, show that we 
must penetrate farther towards the Pole in the neighbour- 
hood of the Norwegian coast in order to attain a given 
degree of winter's cold than in any other part of the 
northern hemisphere. In fact, we may conceive the Atlantic 
as moderating the effect of winter by pouring in a flood 
of heat towards the arctic seas, through the enormous 
strait between Greenland and Norway which connects the 
Atlantic Ocean with the proper " Polar Basin," if such 
exist, and this flood of heat spends itself chiefly or entirely 
on the Norwegian side of the opening — the January iso- 
thermals falling with extreme rapidity into lower latitudes 
on the inhospitable coast of Greenland. Now this general 
expression of the phenomena evidenced by the isothermal 
lines, has, as is well known, a physical cause precisely 
corresponding to it, and sufficiently explaining it. This is 
the continual direction of a current of the Atlantic waters 
having the high temperature due to southern latitudes 
precisely in the line in which the arctic cold is thus 
powerfully repelled. The " Gulf Stream," taking its rise in 



202 



ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORWAY. 



the Gulf of Florida, proceeds northwards and eastwards, 
until it breaks on the shores of Europe and northern 
Africa, a portion of it striking the western coasts of the 
British Isles, and being prolonged to the coast of Norway, 
imparting warmth to water and to land, and effectually 
repelling the invasion of floating ice with which Finmarken 
would otherwise be continually menaced.* It has been 
calculated that the heat thrown into the Atlantic Ocean by 
the Gulf Stream in a winter's day would suffice to raise the 
temperature of the part of the atmosphere which rests upon 
France and Great Britain from the freezing point to sum- 
mer's heat. The fact of such a transference of the heated 
waters of the tropics into Northern Europe is popularly but 
convincingly proved by the common occurrence of finding 
West Indian seeds and woods upon the west coasts of 
Ireland, Scotland, and Norway. Captain Sabine relates 
that in the year 1823 some casks of palm oil were thrown 
ashore at Hammerfest (lat. 71°), which were traced to the 
wreck of a vessel the year before at Cape Lopez, in Africa, f 
The general direction of the Gulf Stream (only its feebler 
and reflected part, however) on the coast of Norway is 
indicated on the little chart before referred to, whilst on 
the west of the Atlantic a reverse stream marked " Polar 
Current," is shown descending from Spitzbergen and the 
u Polar Basin," between the coasts of Iceland and Green- 
land, charged with icebergs, and of course approaching the 
temperature of freezing salt water. This mass of water 
spends its cold on America as the Gulf Stream does its heat 

* II faut s'eloigner dc 20 a 30 lieues marines dcs dcrniers promontoires 
(North Cape) avant d'aperccvoir des iluts de glace ; encore sont-ils Men loin 
;i l'liorizon. — Von Buch, Annales de Chimie et de Physique, vol. ii. 1816. 

f Note to Cosmos. 



SUMMER HEAT DETERMINES THE SNOW LINE. 



203 



on Europe, and finally sinks under the warm current off the 
coasts of the United States. 

The position of the red curves which pass through places 
which have the July temperature alike, is altogether differ- 
ent from that of the winter curves : indeed in part of Nor- 
way (as also in Great Britain), they are very nearly at right 
angles. The summit of the July curves is found in Siberia, 
where the summer heat is overwhelming, which is mode- 
rated as we approach the shores of the ocean. It is by the 
amount of the summer heat that the limits of perpetual snow 
are mainly determined. The part of Norway beyond the 
arctic circle is of course exposed to the continued action 
of the sun, day and night, during part of summer, hence 
the rapidity of vegetation, and the intense heat which in 
some places prevails for a short time — the thermometer, as 
we have seen, rising to 84° at Alten in lat. 70°. 

The two sides of the Scandinavian Peninsula differ 
exceedingly in climate, the eastern part tending to the 
continental, the western to the oceanic climate. The contrast 
between Bergen and Christiania in this respect has been 
stated in a former chapter. The table-land of Norway 
forms in all its extent a most important barrier, which 
commonly separates the most opposite states of weather. 
The rain at Bergen is several times as great as that at 
Christiania. It falls chiefly in winter — that of Christiania 
in summer. When it rains or snows east of the Fille-field, it 
is most probably fine on the west. A sort of intermediate 
climate occurs on the western depression of the conti- 
nent, but at some distance from the coast, and offers an 
interesting peculiarity ; it is the climate of the interior of 
the fiords, as on the Hardanger and Sogne near Bergen, the 
Throndhj em-fiord above that town, and Kaa-fiord as con- 



204 



ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGEAPHY OF NORWAY. 



trasted with the climate of Hammerfest. In all these cases 
the climate improves as we recede from the shores, the 
corn ripens better, the mean temperature is higher, and, at 
least in the far north, vegetation is more luxuriant. This 
arises mainly from the excessive amount of rain, fog, and 
cloud, which lowers out of all proportion the temperature 
of summer in the immediate neighbourhood of the coast. 
Bergen is universally known as one of the most rainy spots 
in Europe, and its position manifestly resembles that of 
Westmoreland, of Penzance, and of Coimbra, which enjoy 
an unenviable pre-eminence in this respect. The average fall 
of rain at Bergen exceeds 77 inches, while that at Upsala, 
on the continental side of Scandinavia on the same parallel, 
is only 16 inches. At Bergen 21 per cent, of the annual fall 
is in the three summer months, whilst at Upsala it amounts 
to 33 per cent. At Ullensvang, on an interior branch of 
the Hardanger-fiord, though plunged in the midst of lofty 
mountains, the climate has already greatly improved. At 
the head of the Sogne-fiord it is still better. The barley 
was ready there for the sickle when it was hopelessly 
green near Bergen. In Finmarken, again, the interior fiords, 
and the valleys connected with them, surpass incompara- 
bly in climate the islands and outlying portions of the 
coast. The valleys of Bardu and Lyngen are the most 
northern corn lands in the world, and at Alten the Scotch 
fir attains a height of 780 English feet above the sea, and 
the birch of 1500 feet. At Hammerfest, which is on an 
island exposed to the sea, and less than one degree of 
latitude farther north, nature seems almost torpid, the fogs 
are continual, the birch trees are mere bushes at the level 
of the sea, and scarcely anything can be reared in the 
* Schouw, Climat d'ltalie, pp. 170, 171. 



THE SNOW LINE. 



205 



gardens. In short, we have the climate of Iceland — neither 
excessive heat nor cold, but a benumbing mediocrity of 
temperature and a perpetual cloud. 

§ 3. On the Position of the Snow Line in Norway. 

The occurrence of perpetual snow at a certain height 
above the sea in even the warmest regions in the globe, has 
in all ages excited the curiosity of geographers and natu- 
ralists. Eegarded at first as a very simple indication of the 
depression of temperature as we ascend in the atmosphere, 
it has been carefully studied and applied (often erroneously), 
to the determination of climate. Closer examination has 
shown that the presence of perennial snow — in other words, 
a predominance of all the causes tending to its accumulation 
over those which tend to its waste or fusion — is, indeed, a 
very complicated fact, and cannot be taken as the simple 
expression of any one of the elements of climate. The 
snow line is far from having invariably a mean temperature 
of 32°, as was at one time supposed. Under the equator it 
is about 35° 5 in the Alps and Pyrenees about 25° ; and in 
latitude 68° in Norway it is (according to Von Buch) only 
21°. Yet though there are regions both in the extremity 
of Siberia and in arctic America, of which the mean 
temperature is below zero of Fahrenheit (as, for example, 
Melville Island), it is quite established, on the concurrent 
authority of those best acquainted with these regions, that 
nowhere in the Northern Hemisphere does the snow line attain 
the level of the sea. The explanation is to be sought princi- 
pally in the intensity of the summer heat during the period 
of perpetual day, which effectually thaws the soil, though 



206 



ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORWAY. 



only to a trifling depth, and raises upon its surface a certain 
amount of brief vegetation suitable for the support of arctic 
animals. 

Another cause affecting exceedingly the level of the 
snow line is the amount of snow which falls. The in- 
terior of continents being far drier than the coasts, the 
snow to be melted is a comparatively slight covering. The 
snow line on the north side of the Himalaya is at least 3000 
feet higher than towards the burning plains of Hindoostan. 
This is chiefly due to the excessive dryness of the climate 
of Thibet. In like manner, five times less rain falls on the 
coast of the Baltic than at Bergen. All this confirms the 
excellent generalization of Von Buch, that it is the tempera- 
ture of the summer months which determines the plane of perpetual 
snow. It is thus easy to understand why the mean tem- 
perature of the snow line diminishes towards the Pole, 
because for a given mean temperature of the whole year 
the summer is far hotter in proportion. Also, places at 
which the temperature of the summer is low, are those which 
have a moderated or coast climate 5 but there also the fall 
of rain and snow is most abundant, whilst in excessive or 
continental climates the precipitations are comparatively 
small. The red lines on the small chart which indicate the 
mean temperature of July, have therefore a peculiar signi- 
ficance as respects perpetual snow ; to take only one 
instance at present, they explain why in Iceland snow lies 
all the year at a height of only 3100 feet, whilst in Norway, 
on the same parallel, the snow line would approach 4000. 

The same general principle holds good in the southern 
hemisphere. Its temperature, on the whole, being greatly 
inferior to that of the north (though the extremes are less), 
it acts towards the rest of the globe in some measure 



ELEVATION OF PERPETUAL SNOW. 



207 



as the refrigeratory of a great distilling apparatus (as some 
one has correctly observed), and its higher latitudes are 
the seat of almost continual storms and fog, of which 
the climate of Cape Horn is a familiar example. Sum- 
mer there can hardly he said to exist, and the snow line 
is proportionally low. According to Sir James Boss,* the 
first living authority on the subject, the snow line does 
reach the level of the sea in the antarctic regions, at a 
latitude between 67° and 71°, under which forests still 
grow in Norway, and even corn in some sheltered places. 

The following are the only estimates I have met with 
of the level of perpetual snow in Norway, although it is 
probable that others exist. We shall commence with the 
south-west district — 

1. The Folgefond, on the south-west of the Hardanger 
country, is the most important of that region. An 
outlying hill (latitude 59°.9), above Eosendal, called 
Melderskin, is covered with perpetual snow (according to 
Hertzberg), though its height is only 4558 Ehenish, or 
about 4700 English feet. We may suppose the snow line 
to be at least 200 feet lower, as the summit is isolated, say 
4500 feet. 

2. Lat. 60°. 1. On the western or seaward side of the 
Folgefond, near Moranger-fiord, by my observation (page 
136), the snow begins at 3800 or 3900 English feet.j 

3. Lat. 60°.l. The landward or eastern side of the 
Folgefond ceases to be covered with snow, according to 
the same authorities, at 1697 metres, or about 5240 English 
feet. 

* From a private letter with which he kindly favoured me. 
f This observation, though subject to some doubt, is well confirmed by the 
limit of the birch, as ascertained by Professor Christian Smith of Norway. 



208 



ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGEAPHY OF NORWAY. 



4. This last elevation, has been also determined by 
Naumann (Travels, i. 130), but with a very different result. 
The mean of two observations of 4100 and 3950 Ehenish 
feet, corresponds to 4150 English feet. 

All the preceding determinations are subject to some 
doubt. In the first the snow line is not directly measured 
at all, only the summit of the hill. In the second the baro- 
meter was acting imperfectly. The third is unquestionably 
much too high from a comparison with the determined 
height of various parts of the ' fond' (see Gcea Norvegica, p. 
159), certainly many hundred feet above the snow line. 
The fourth, on the other hand, is as certainly somewhat too 
low, the observation having been taken (Naumann, i. 109), 
at an outfall or depression of the glacier. It seems to me 
very probable that a mean of the whole will be tolerably 
correct, which gives nearly 4400 English feet. 

5. Lat. 60°.2. Hartougen, in the Hardanger- field 
(Smith), 5000 Eh. ft. = 5150 Eng.— Lat. 61°. The interior 
range of the Fille-field (Von Buch), 1694 metres, about 
5560 English feet. Mean 5400 Eng. feet. 

6. Lat. 61°.5. Outlying portion of Justedals Brasen 
towards the sea, between Jolster and Indvigs-fiord, accord- 
ing to Naumann, about 4000 Ehenish, or 4120 English feet. 

7. Lat. 61°.6. Justedals Brseen, east side, near Lodals- 
kaabe (Von Buch and Bohr), mean 5460 English feet. 

8. Lat. 61°.6. Storhougen, between Lyster and Juste- 
dal (Keilhau), 5000 French, or 5330 English feet. 

9. Lat. 61°.6. In the centre of the chain, near Otta-vand 
(Broch), 4610 Ehenish, or 4750 English feet. 

10. Lat. 62°.2. Dovre-field, according to Naumann, 5200 
Ehenish, or 5360 English feet. Dovre-field, guessed by 
Von Buch at 1582 metres, or 5109 English feet. 



SNOW LINE ON SULITELMA. 



209 



11. Lat. 67°.l. Sulitelma, on the frontier of Norway, and 
Swedish Lapland. Wahlenberg is the sole authority. As 
reported by Von Buch, the snow line is at 1169 metres, or 
3840 English feet; but there seems to be some mistake, 
for in Wahlenberg' s Flora Lapponica, it is expressly said 
(Introd. p. xl.), that the summit of the mountain is 5796 
French feet above the sea, and 2600 above the snow line, 
leaving, therefore, almost 3200 French feet for the height 
of the latter. Von Buch's 1169 metres* is equivalent to 
3600 French feet. Wahlenberg, in another place, assigns 
3300 French feet as the general height of the snow line in 
Lapland (p. xxxv.) M. Durocher gives 1169 metres as the 
height (always on Wahlenberg' s authority) in the Expedition 
du Nord, and 1010 metres = 3109 French feet, in his paper 
in the Annates des Mines (1847, vol. xii. p. 79), which cor- 
responds with none of the others. Under these circum- 
stances, we must take Wahlenberg's own authority, and 
conclude that the level of the snow line at Sulitelma is 
probably — 

On the west, or Norway side, 3200 French = 3410 English feet. 
On the east, or Lapland side, 3300 French = 3520 English feet. 

12. Lat. 70°. At Alten in Finmarken, which is some- 
what removed from the immediate influence of the sea, the 
snow line is fixed by Von Buch at 1060 metres or 3480 feet. 
But this being an insulated summit (Storvands-field), is 
hardly comparable to Sulitelma, the greatest concentration 

* See his Memoir on the Snow line in Norway, in the Annales de Chimie, 
already cited. It is an abstract of a larger essay to he found in the 
French translation by Eyries of his Journey in Norway, and in Gilbert's 
Annals for 1812. See also Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, vol. iii., for a 
translation. 



210 



ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORWAY. 



of snowy mountains in the north of Scandinavia, and con- 
sequently colder in proportion. 

13. Lat. 70°.4. On the island of Seiland, level of per- 
petual snow, according to Keilhau, 2880 Rhenish, or 2970 
English feet ; according to Durocher, 886 metres, or 2910 
English feet — a close agreement. 

We are at first surprised to find so few and little ac- 
cordant determinations of the level of the snow line in 
Norway, but it is easily explained. In Norway (unlike 
Switzerland) the snowy regions are commonly remote 
from inhabited valleys ; they are of difficult access, and 
are rarely and casually visited by the curious traveller. 
The ascertainment of permanent from occasional snow, 
always difficult, is nearly impracticable except by con- 
tinued and close observation, and it is not to be expected 
that the natives should be able to give satisfactory infor- 
mation on a subject of so little interest to them. 

The substance of the preceding observations may be 
reduced to this — 

First The first four and the 6th observations tell us that 
in lat. 60° to 62° the snow line at a short distance from the 
coast may be considered to be at 4300 English feet, or 
thereabouts. 

Secondly. In the same latitude, towards the centre of 
the country, it rises (by the 5th, 7th, 8th, 9th, and 10th 
observations) to 5300 feet. 

Thirdly. In lat. 67°, in the interior, it has fallen to 3500 
feet, and is not much lower on insulated summits in lat. 70°, 
though on the coast it falls to 2900. This trifling effect 
of latitude is partly explained by the marked tendency of 
the summer isothermal lines to run parallel to the penin- 
sula of Scandinavia. 



LIMITS OF VEGETATION IN LAT. 70° 



211 



Von Buch has remarked, that in Norway and Lapland 
the planes of vegetation of the pine and birch run nearly 
parallel to the plane of perpetual snow — the intervals, as 
observed by him at Alten, being given by the following 
table of limiting heights of vegetation above the sea — 



VEGETATION IN LATITUDE 70°. 



The Pine (Pinus sylvcstris) ceases at . . 237 metres = 780 Eng. ft. 
The Birch (Betula alba) ceases at . . . 482 metres = 1580 Eng. ft. 
Bilberry [Vaccinium Myrtillus) ceases at . 620 metres = 2030 Eng. ft. 
Mountain "Willow (Salix Mirsinites) ceases at 656 metres = 2150 Eng. ft. 
Dwarf Birch [Betula Nava) ceases at . . 836 metres = 2740 Eng. ft. 
The Snow line 1060 metres = 3480 Eng. ft. 



From the growth of the birch he has estimated the level 
of the snow line in the islands of Qualoe and Mageroe, 
though neither of these rise to the requisite limit. It is 
probable, however, that the direct sea blast to which those 
bare rocks are exposed, must act chemically upon vege- 
tation in a way which would render the deduction of the 
snow line considerably doubtful — which doubt is con- 
firmed by the more recent determination of the snow line 
on the island of Seiland, opposite to Qualoe. Still, as a 
guide to fill up the gaps of direct observation, I add some 
determinations of the limit-level of the common birch in 
Norway, chiefly taken from the Gcea Korvegica, from Nau- 
manris Travels, and from the observations of Wahlenberg, 
and of Smith the Norwegian botanist. These are important, 
as indicating the law of the phenomenon. Von Buch 
estimates the interval between the limit of the birch and 
perpetual snow at about 1870 English feet throughout 



212 ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORWAY. 

Norway; Wahlenberg, at 1960 English feet; which pro- 
bably represents best the results in higher latitudes. In 
the following table, I have inferred the height of the snow 
line from the limit of the birch, by adding 1900 feet to the 
latter number, and I have added in another column the 
direct determinations of the snow level previously given. 



Places where the Superior Limit of the Birch has 
been observed. 



Lat. 59^°. Gousta-field, Tellemarken {inland) \ 
3500, 3290 Rhenish feet ) 

Lat. 59£°. Suledals-field,3090, 2760 Rh. ft. {coast) 

Lat. 60°-61°. Hardanger-field, 3320, 3440 Rh. 
ft., Fille-field, 3300, 3630 Rh. ft. {inland) 

Lat. 60°. Hardanger-fiord, Ullensvang, 2900 Rh. 
ft., Folgefond, 1900, 2100, Voss, 2630 {coast) 

Lat. 62°. Lom, central chain, 3150 Rh. ft ; Do- 
vre, 3370, 3350, 3600, 3220 ; Roraas, 3400 ; 
mean, 3350 {inland) 

Lat. 64°. North Throndhjerns Amt, seven ob- 
servations, of which the highest is 2130 
Rh. ft. on the Swedish frontier ; the lowest 
1790 Rh. ft. on the Borge-field ; mean, 2000 
almost exactly 

Lat. 67°. Gilleskaal, Salten, near the sea, and ^ 
also near great Icefields of Fondal, 1200 y 
Rh. ft.; Stegen, 1320 {coast) j 

Lat. 67°. Sulitelma, W. side 1100, E. side 2100 \ 
Fr. ft. {inland) \ 

Lat. 68°. Lofodden 1510* 1070, 1030 Rh. ft. ; \ 
mean {coast) j 

Lat. 69£°. Alten, Finmarken, and interior ge- \ 
nerally, 1550, 1550, 1300, 1420, 1150; Kaa- I 
fiord, 1530; mean 1420 j 

Lat. 70°. 6. Qualoe, 227 metres (Seiland, snow ) 
line) {coast) ) 

Lat. 7l°.2. Mageroe, North Cape, 130 metres 



Mean Limit I Snow Line in En S lisb ft - 
of Birch in 
English ft. 



3550 
3010 
3520 

2450 
3450 

2060 

1300 

1710 
1200 

1460 

750 
430 1 



Inferred. 



5450 
4910 
5420 

4350 
5350 

4110 

inland. 
3810 
coast. 

3200 

3610 
3100 

3360 

2050 



Observed. 



5400 
4370 

5300 



3460 

3480 
2940 



* Lodingen, sheltered exposure, Von Buch. 

f From excessive exposure not comparable to the others. The same re- 
mark applies in some degree to the preceding observation at Qualoe. 



CURVATUKE OF THE SNOW LINE. 



213 



By means of a graphical construction, derived from the 
preceding table, I have succeeded better than I could have 
expected, in representing the variation of the snow line, and 
the limit of the birch in Norway, in terms of the latitude. 
But it is absolutely necessary, on the roughest estimate, to 
distinguish the Coast climate from the Inland climate. It 
appears on the slightest examination that the limit both of 
the birch and of perpetual snow rises as we recede from 
the coast towards the interior, the amount, however, vary- 
ing between one latitude and another. By Coast, be it 
observed, I do not mean the actual shore exposed to the 
blast and spray of the open ocean, but generally (with some 
exceptions, however, as at Kaa-fiord, which has a conti- 
nental climate), the comparatively narrow space where the 
mountains have a decided western declivity. The result 
of the projection (due regard being had to the number and 
worth of the observations upon which it is based) is, 
that the curves are nearly flat between 59° and 62°, where 
they begin to decline rather rapidly — passing from convex 
to concave about the 65th degree, from which point north- 
wards they decline, but with extreme slowness. This form 
of the snow line is, I am persuaded, in the main correct. 
The rapid fall north of the Dovre-field, its flatness in the 
south, and its slow declivity in the north, all correspond to 
observation. I shall now give a table founded on these 
curves, for every two degrees of latitude. 



214 ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGBAPHY OF NORWAY. 



Table of the Height of the Snow Line' 
and Limit of the Common Birch (Betula Alba) in Norway. 



Latitude 
North. 


Snow Line. 


Limit of Birch. 


Interior. 


Coast. 


Difference. 


Interior. 


Coast. 


Difference. 




Eng. Ft. 


Eng. Ft. 


Eng. Ft. 


Eng. Ft. 


Eng. Ft. 


Eng. Ft. 


60° 


5500 


4450 


1050 


3600 


2650 


950 


62° 


5200 


4150 


1050 


3350 


2450 


900 


64° 


4200 


3650 


550 


2300 


1900 


400 


66° 


3700 


3250 


450 


1750 


1450 


300 


68° 


3450 


3000 


450 


1500 


1150 


350 


70° 


3350 


2900 


450 


1350 


950 


400 



It will be understood that these numbers must be con- 
sidered as mere approximations. Errors of from 100 to 
200 feet may well occur in the best determinations of this 
kind. Besides, the distinction of Interior and Coast evi- 
dently does not admit of precision. 

Beyond the limits of Norway the depression of the snow 
line is probably much more rapid. Over the ocean we 
come into wholly new climatic conditions. The level of 
the snow line at Cherry or Beeren Island, lat. 74^°, has been 
estimated at 180 metres, about 600 English feet, and at 
Spitzbergen, lat. 79|°, at ; but I have already stated that 
this last result is inadmissible. 

The preceding discussions establish completely the in- 
fluence of climate in determining the rise of the snow plane 
towards the interior. This is most conspicuous about lat. 
60° to 62°, where the difference, it would appear, amounts t 
perhaps 1000 feet ; but rapidly declines in lat. 64°, corre- 
sponding, in fact, to the peculiar change in the form of the 
peninsula (referred to at page 190), which there rapidly 
loses its massive and elevated character, and the climate 
becomes in consequence more maritime. The rise of the 



EISE OF THE SNOW LINE IN THE INTERIOR. 



215 



snow line may even be traced on the east and west side of 
the outlying mountains near the coast. It depends partly 
on the same cause as the rise of the snow line in the interior of 
Asia — the comparative dryness of the climate — but in great 
measure also on the greater effect towards the interior, of the 
solar rays ; which at Bergen, and on the coast generally, are 
so often obscured by clouds and fog. Wahlenberg long ago 
remarked the superior importance of the heat of the sun in 
melting snow, compared to the effect of rain.* This is also 
true in Switzerland, though exceptions are sometimes strik- 
ing.")" But in Norway, the rain which falls on summer snow 
can have no great warmth, nor be in any great quantity. 
We shall probably much exaggerate its effect, if we sup- 
pose that one fourth of the yearly fall on the snow fields 
is in the state of rain, and that the mean temperature of 
that rain is 40° F. This quantity would thaw no more 
than one fiftieth of the snow fallen at other seasons.^ 

We observe in passing, as the result of the comparison 
of the configuration of the country with the position of the 
snow line, that though the surface actually covered by per- 
petual snow in Norway be small, yet the mountainous 
districts and table-lands everywhere approach it so nearly, 

* " Calore solis nix melius solvitur qnam pluviis omnibus calidis ;" and 
more to the same purpose. — Flora Lapponica, Introd. lvi. 

-J- The floods of September 1852 at Chamouni, were caused mainly by a 
deluge of warm rain, which acted simultaneously on the glaciers and snows 
up even to the summit of Mont Blanc, which was seen all the while from 
Chamouni, whereas falling snow always conceals it more or less. My guide 
Auguste Balmat mentioned these facts to me in a recent letter. 

\ M. Durocher has computed, from the observations made at the convent 
of the Great St. Bernard in Switzerland, which is but little below the snow 
line, that not more than one ninetieth of the annual snow is dissolved by the 
rain. 



216 



ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORWAY. 



that the snow plane may be said to hover over the penin- 
sula, and any cause which should lower it even a little, 
would plunge a great part of the country under a mantle of 
frost. Nay, so nice is the adjustment, that even the con- 
vexity of the rocky contour has its counterpart in the fall 
of the snow line near the coast, and in the general depres- 
sion towards the north. The incidence of this remark will 
presently be more fully perceived. 



CHAPTER X. 



ON SOME POINTS IN THE PHYSICAL GEOGEAPHY 

OF NOEWAY, 

CHIEFLY CONNECTED WITH ITS SNOW FIELDS AND GLACIERS. 

Continued from Chapter IX. 

§ 4. ESSAY TOWARDS AN ENUMERATION OF THE PRINCIPAL SNOW FIELDS AND GLACIERS 
OF NORWAY. § 5. THE GLACIERS OF NORWAY COMPARED WITH THOSE OF SWITZER- 
LAND — ANALOGY PERFECT — DIFFERENCES LESS THAN MIGHT BE EXPECTED FROM 
DIFFERENCE IN LATITUDE— DUE CHIEFLY TO THE DIFFERENT RELIEF OF THE COUNTRY. 
§ 6. ON THE FORMER EXTENSION OF GLACIERS IN NORWAY— MORAINES OF ANCIENT 
GLACIERS FIRST DESCRIBED BY ESMARK — SIMILAR TO THOSE OF SWITZERLAND AND 
OTHER COUNTRIES — CHANGE OF CLIMATE NECESSARY TO COVER NORWAY WITH SNOW 
AND ICE NOT EXCESSIVE. § 7. ON SOME OBSERVATIONS DESIRABLE TO BE MADE. § 8. 
ON SOME PECULIARITIES OF THE SCENERY OF NORWAY— WATERFALLS. 



§ 4. Essay towards an enumeration of the Principal 
Snow fields and Glaciers of Norway. 

The existence of perpetual snow is not sufficient to pro- 
duce a glacier. Of climatic conditions, extreme dryness 
and extreme cold are not favourable. Pallas affirms that 
Siberia is destitute of glaciers. In the tropical region of 
South America, if glaciers exist, they are certainly small, 
but they abound in the foggy and inhospitable coasts near 
Cape Horn. The climate of Norway is favourable in this 



218 



ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORWAY. 



respect, but another condition is often wanting — a sufficient 
continuity of mass, and the disposition of snow in basins, 
affording a large feeding surface of neve, or compacted 
snow, from which the glacier, occupying the natural outlet 
of such a valley, takes its origin. A calotte, or convex sur- 
face of ice and snow, is not favourable to the production 
of a glacier. Isolated peaks are altogether unfavourable, 
and so are flat-topped hills of small extent. 

The glaciers of Norway have excited but little notice. 
The allusion to them in Pontoppidan's work (though he 
professed to describe the chief curiosities of the mountains 
of the Bergen Stift) is extremely general. " In some places 
far north," he says, " the undermost layers of snow, by 
long lying, turn to a bluish ice, called in our language 
Iisbrede, which sometimes slide to a considerable distance 
over the lower grounds, to the no small detriment of the 
peasants." He then refers to the descent of the glaciers 
of Justedal, which was then recent. The term Iisbrede 
means literally an outspread of ice, which is characteristic 
enough ; and Iisbraier, which is the more common term, is 
perhaps a corruption of it. Fond or Sneefond signifies, I 
believe, any mass of perpetual snow. Skavl is a convex 
mass of snow of less extent, and Skceker a descending 
glacier.")" In Lapland the latter is called Geikna or Jegna, 
and in many parts of Norway Jokel or Jokull, and Falljokid, 
which is, I believe, Icelandic. 

The first who bestowed some attention on the glaciers 
of Scandinavia were Wahlenberg and Von Buch. These 
were the true De Saussures of the north. Wahlenberg in 
particular made three extended and most laborious journeys 

* Natural History of Norway, p. 28. 1755. 
f Munch in Gcea, p. 515, note. 



SNOW FIELDS AND GLACIEES. 



219 



through the wildest parts of Lapland, of which he has left 
but too short a record in his admirable introduction to the 
Flora Lapponica^ and in his " Determinations of Height and 
Temperature in Lat. 67°."* To him we owe a detailed ex- 
amination and description of the wild group of Sulitelma, 
in the manner of De Saussure's Travels in the Alps. Wah- 
lenberg and Von Buch met in the course of one of their 
journeys, and no doubt, mutually increased their informa- 
tion. To the latter (jointly with his friend and companion 
Christian Smith, the botanist, who died in Africa), we 
owe many indications as to the snow fields of the west, 
unvisited by the Swedish naturalist. The published no- 
tices in Von Buch's Travels are unfortunately scanty, and 
do not include the Bergen Stift, which, notwithstanding, he 
had explored ; and he probably left some scattered notices 
in the Norwegian periodicals referred by some later writers, 
but of which I have been unable to obtain a satisfactory 
account, though a friend at Christiania has taken some 
pains on purpose. But it appears incidentally, that he 
had explored the snow fields, both of Justedal and Fol- 
gefond, as he has given the height of the snow line in 
one place, and referred to the exact level reached by the 
glacier of Bondhuus in another. \ 

Haussmann, Clarke, and most later writers, scarcely 
touch on the subject of glaciers. Naumann and Durocher, 
however, have conveyed valuable and specific informa- 
tion, as well as Keilhau and Munch amongst native men of 
science. 

* I do not overlook the interesting journals of Linneeus in his " Lachesis 
Lapponica ;" but these are more exclusively botanical. 

■J- I have reason, however, to think the paper referred to in the note to 
page 209 is his principal, if not only publication on the subject. 



220 



ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORWAY. 



I do not pretend, in this first attempt, to enumerate the 
individual glaciers of Scandinavia, nor in the map accom- 
panying this work (on which their positions are roughly 
indicated), either to define or give names to a great number 
of whose existence I have only been able to ascertain some 
traces, many of them by the indications given in Professor 
Munch' s very valuable map of Norway, and by his pri- 
vate communications ; nor do I profess to enumerate all 
the mere snow fields of this vast country, many of which 
have a doubtful character, the snow filling great hollows 
or flats all the year, whilst the summits rise black and 
nearly bare above them. There is so little inducement 
to penetrate these vast wildernesses of table-lands, and to 
ascertain where the snow disappears in summer, and where 
it does not, that it will require all the energy of native 
naturalists, for years to come, to fix these boundaries. 

Lat. 59°. 5. Goustqfield in Tellemarken, well known to 
travellers who visit Kongsberg and the Ejukan Foss, rises 
to about 6200 English feet, therefore might be expected to 
be nearly 1000 feet above the probable snow line. It 
appears, however, that owing to its insulated position and 
rugged top, the snow has no definite inferior level, and 
occasionally the snow even disappears, which happened in 
1852. 

Lat. 59°.5. To the east of Suledal, not far from the west 
coast of Norway, is a mountain mass, which appears to 
exceed 5000 feet, and may therefore be presumed to reach 
the limit of perpetual snow near the coast. Naumann 
crossed a portion of this field from Vatendal to Suledal, 
but it is otherwise little known, and certainly bears no 
glaciers of magnitude. A little farther north is the Brei- 
fond, a calotte, or cap of perpetual snow. 



GLACIERS OF FOLGEFOND AND HARDANGEE-FIELD. 221 

Lat. 60°. The Folgefoncl, already frequently referred to, 
is the most important glacier-bearing snow-field in this 
part of Norway. It is a narrow range of flattish topped 
mountains, stretching out in an immense promontory into 
the Har danger-fiord. According to the very coincident 
authority of Hertzberg, Smith, and Naumann, the highest 
portion of the " Fond," or snowy surface, falls short of 
5300 Ehenish, or 5460 English feet, which seems irrecon- 
cilable with the statement already given on the authority 
of Hertzberg and Von Buch, placing the snow line only 220 
feet lower. The dimensions of the snowy and icy surface 
are irreconcilable with the supposition of so small a height 
for its supply. The whole runs in a north and south direc- 
tion, the snow and ice filling a sort of cavity along the top. 
There are several small outfalls of ice, constituting true 
glaciers, on the east side of which the principal is the glacier 
of Buer, which descends to 1000 feet (according to Captain 
Biddulph) ; another and smaller is near the hamlet of Moge, 
on the Sor-fiord. But the most majestic outlet by far of the 
icy surplus is on the south-west, forming the fine glacier of 
Bondhuus (page 133), which descends to within 1120 feet 
of the sea level. Wittich, in his account of the west of 
Norway, describes the Matre-fiord behind Bosendal, to the 
west of the Hardanger, as a terrific ravine closed at the 
head by a glacier, and though this was only on report, it 
appears to be confirmed by a reference in Von Buch's 
paper on the snow line. 

Lat. 60°-61°. The Hardanger-jield, of which the Folge- 
fond is a sort of offset, is a flattish range of immense breadth, 
and attaining generally a height of 4000 feet above the sea, 
which renders it an irksome and even a dangerous task to 
cross, since it cannot be accomplished in one day. My 



222 



ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORWAY. 



impression, on viewing the west side of the Hardanger-field 
from nearly the highest part of the Folgefond, was, that no 
true mass of united snow field was to be seen from thence. 
According, however, to the inquiries I have since made 
from the most competent authorities in Norway, it appears 
that there is a large tract of high ground covered with snow, 
which in general terms may be called " Storfond," stretch- 
ing nearly parallel, and not unlike in shape, to the Folge- 
fond, from which it is separated by the depression of the 
Sor-fiord and by the valley which continues it towards the 
south. This great "fond," including several lesser "fonds" 
with separate names on Munch' s map, is in most seasons, 
at least, a continuous mass of snow, as Professor Munch 
himself assures me ; and I have so represented it in the 
map in this volume ; but no glaciers occur. The vast and 
often snowy wastes of the Hardanger-field to the east and 
south-east of this, do not for the most part rise anywhere 
above the snow line, which there probably exceeds 5000 
feet ; yet great tracts of unmelted snow often lie all sum- 
mer, and sometimes descend even below the birch limit. 
We must not be surprised to find a contrariety of statements 
on the subject, for no one dwells in this wilderness ; and in 
different years the amount of casual snow varies remarkably 
with the season. In some years the passage of the Hardan- 
ger-field may be made with little interruption from snow ; 
in others, the whole " field" will appear to be above the 
snow line. 

In the Hallings Jokulen, not far from the most north- 
western part of the Hardanger-fiord (near the Voring Foss), 
are three or four glaciers, probably of the second order (of 

* Christian Smith. Compare Biddulph in Forrester's Norway, pp. 188-0, 
who supposes the snow line to he 4500 feet. 



GLACIERS OF HALLING AND JUSTED A L. 



223 



Do Saussure), derived from a summit of 6400 feet.* The 
Hallingskarven to the east of this, are snow-covered, but 
do not, I believe, include glaciers. In the wild country 
between Eid-fiord on the Hardanger, and Urland on the 
Sogne-fiord, is a snow field, the Vosse Skavlen (6750 feet) 
with glaciers of the second order, some of which terminate 
in lakes, in which their fragments float as in the Aletsch- 
See in Switzerland. 

The Fille-field in the same latitude has limited snow 
fields, but no glaciers. 

Lat. 61° 5'. The Justedals Bra?en are the most con- 
siderable snow fields in Norway, unless, perhaps, those of 
Fondal. The snowy range to which they belong, extends, 
probably, at least 50 English miles in a N.E. and S.W. 
direction, of which the Lodals Kaabe, or Mantle of Lodal, 
is the highest part. On the southern declivity we have 
the two great glaciers of Fjserland,f and one or more at 
the head of the Veitestrands Vand near Sogndal ; £ the 
glaciers of Kron or Berset ; and the proper glaciers of 

* The glaciers represented on the south slope of the Jokulen on Munch's 
map are inserted from a competent local authority. " In warm summers," 
writes Captain Vihe, " the Jokul is seen as a whole mass of ice traversed 
"by crevasses." 

f In addition to what has been said of these at page 150, Krafft in his 
Beskrivelse over Norge gives the following information : — The glacier men - 
tioned as occupying the head of the Suphelle Valley (and which is called 
Vesle or Little Glacier) is estimated at half a Norwegian mile in length, and 
from 1500 to 2000 paces broad ; the Suphelle-Brse, at 5000 paces long, and 
1800 broad; Boiums-Bras is three eighths of a Norwegian mile long. There 
are also considerable glaciers at the head of the Veste-fiord (a branch of that 
of Fjserland), which have likewise retreated from their moraines. 

\ This glacier is said to reach the level of the lake. It and another 
called Tunsbergs-Brse, on the side towards the Lyster-fiord, descend from 
tlie portion of the snow-field called Ilesten (the Horse). 



224 



ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OP NORWAY. 



Justedal, viz., Nygaard, Faabergstol or Biornesteg, Trange- 
dal and Lodal. All these are glaciers of the first order 
descending into the valley. Of these, according to Du- 
rocher, the glacier of Lodal is the largest, not only in 
Justedal, but in Norway — its estimated length being 9 
kilometres, or 5 1 - miles, and its greatest breadth 700 to 
800 metres, or above 800 yards. I should suppose that 
these numbers are merely estimations. The glacier of 
Nygaard, with a course of less than four miles, has a 
breadth of 1000 or 1100 yards, according to the same 
author. The inferior levels of these glaciers are, Berset, 
(page 165) 1317 feet, but 1590 according to Von Buch ; 
Nygaard, 1815 ; Faabergstol, 1360 according to Bohr, 
but 1570 according to Naumann; Lodal and Trangedal, 
1770 (Bohr), or 1890 (Naumann).* The north-west 
or seaward side of the Justedal range is difficult of 
access, and very little frequented ; but it may be sup- 
posed that the glaciers are extensive, the snow line being 
there remarkably low. On Munch' s map, two are con- 
spicuously indicated, one in the prolongation of the Bred- 
heims Vand, which is nearly opposite to Sogndal, on the 
opposite side, and one at Brigsdal, near Indviken, on the 
Indvik-fiord, which is nearly opposite to the Krondal. The 
latter, Professor Munch informs me, approaches within 2000 
feet of the cultivated fields. But neither he nor perhaps 
any naturalist of Norway has visited this region. 

Nearly on the same parallel with Justedal is the exten- 
sive Sogne-field, including the Ymes-field, rising to 8450 

* After crossing the col which separates Justedal from the valleys con- 
nected with Gulbrandsdal and Lorn, we find first the Musubytte-Brce in the 
Brendendal and two glaciers in the Randal, called Randals and Tverbotte- 
Brse — Kraft. 




MAP of the GLACIERS ot the HfESHELD 

in, lot. 60 'W. 



GLACIEKS OF YMES-FIELD— SNEEHATTAN. 



225 



feet, but the elevation being abrupt and not disposed so as 
to collect snow in the interstices, the glaciers, though 
numerous, are not very great in extent. A gentleman, well 
acquainted with this country, informed me that the principal 
glaciers are the Smorstab Brseen, to the west of the Yrnes- 
field, and again those in Lscrdal, which descend from the 
Galdhoppigen. It may be useful to tourists to know that 
it is practicable to go from Lorn to the sceters (or chalets) 
in Vissdal, and thence by Leer Vand to Utledal and Aar- 
dal on the Sogne-fiord. I am enabled by the courtesy of 
Professor Munch to append a map on a considerable scale 
of the glaciers of this remarkable region. It is reduced 
from an original drawing by the engineer who surveyed it, 
and which has been put at my disposal. 

Almost connected with the Ymes-field are the Glitter- 
tinderne (8100 feet) and the lofty mountains of Lorn, which, 
in the panorama of Sneehattan, show by far the most con- 
spicuous snow fields. They unquestionably include glaciers 
of the second, probably also of the first order, and some of 
these Captain Vibe states (in a private communication) are 
accompanied with conspicuous moraines, which, however, 
are often in inverse proportion to the dimension of the 
glacier. They are also described by Esmark. 

The group of the Trolltinder near Romsdal, considerably 
farther north, is said by Wittich to include at least one 
glacier of large size.* 

Lat. 62°.3. Sneehattan (7520 feet) gives birth to an in- 
considerable glacier terminating in a small lake. It is 
situated at the bottom of a precipice, which extends from 
Sneehattan towards Skreahog. 1 am not aware that any 
other glacier has been described in the wide expanse of 
* Visit to the Western Coast of Norway, p. 146. 
Q 



226 



ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORWAY. 



the Dovre-field, which is, however, confessedly unexplored 
to the westward, it being doubtful whether Skreahog 
and even other summits may not equal or exceed the 
height of Sneehattan.* The striking group of the Hun- 
dane, which belong to the south-west of the field, though 
very lofty, harbour but little snow ; and, I was assured 
on good authority, contain no glacier. Even in the very 
commencement of July, when I ascended Sneehattan, and 
the winter snow was very far from having retreated to its 
limit, it was already quite above the general level of the 
"field," which was perfectly bare, as well as all the emi- 
nences of moderate height. The snow line is here as high 
as in any part of Norway — probably exceeding 5300 feet, 
and the portion of the surface which rises above this is 
trifling in extent. Snow fields, however, there are, not 
only between Sneehattan and the sea, but also between the 
rivers Driva and Orkla on the north declivity. These are 
somewhat conjecturally indicated on the map.f Towards 
the Swedish frontier, east of the Dovre, though the extreme 
heights exceed 5000 feet, they are limited in extent, and 
hardly any except the Syl-field attain 6000. Large snow 
fields are therefore not to be looked for. 

Lat. 65°.3. The Borge-field, about 40 miles inland, and 
not far from the Swedish frontier, is described as being ex- 
tensively covered with perpetual snow, and probably con- 
taining glaciers. The rivers Namsen and Vefsen, well 

* Gsea Norvegica, p. 514. The following summits have been named to 
me as rising above the snow line : — Naadalstinderne, Styggvaa, Storehb, 
Midho, Svartho, and Bjatfonden. But this is, emphatically, " the least 
known part of Norway." 

t Tbey are more extensive than is usually supposed. According to 
Professor Keilhau (by whom alone they have been visited), the Kamban 
and Troldhatta, which are 6000 or 7000 feet high, include small glaciers. 



THE FONDALEX. 



227 



known to anglers — the former running towards the S.W., 
the latter to the N.W. — take their rise on opposite sides of 
this mountain mass, of which the culminating point, called 
Vouenjal'olki, is probably much above 4000 feet, as a con- 
siderable part of the field certainly attains that height. 

Lat. 66°.3. Junkaren Soupts (Soupts, in the language of 
Umean Lapland, signifies a glacier) is a snow field and 
glacier of limited extent, the latter descending to the small 
lake of Virihjaur, whose waters run to the Bothnian Gulf. 
It is mentioned only by Wahlenberg. 

Lat. 66°-67°. The Fondalen, a range of glacier-bearing 
mountains, of which the effect, as seen from the sea, has 
been described at page 52. They appear to be the most 
important which occur to the north of Justedal, with, 
perhaps, the exception of Sulitelma. They are described 
by Professor Munch* as extending from Bejem to Eanen, 
or through 50' of latitude, with a breadth of from 2 to 
4 Norsk (14 to 28 English) miles, and as sending glaciers 
into the sea at Holands-fiord (near Fondal) and in the Mel- 
fiord (which is some miles farther south). The descent of 
the glaciers to the very shore is referred to both by 
Wahlenberg| and Yon Buch,;f; although it does not clearly 

* Gasa Xorvegica, p. 512. 

\ " G-lacies ad littora maris descendit." Walil. Flora. Introd. xli. 

\ " About four or five English miles south from the Cape, opposite the 
trading station of Haasvar, a glacier descends from the height, and the ice 
comes into immediate contact with the sea, a circumstance perhaps peculiar 
to this glacier. Even then the warmth of summer had drawn it a few steps 
from the shore, but it would probably regain its former space in a short 
time." — Black's Translation. 4to, p. 152. The last sentence would seem 
to infer Von Buch's actual visit to the glacier ; yet I apprehend that the 
information was more probably derived from the persons with whom he 
lodged at Swinvar or Viigtil, for neither the dates in his joru'nal, nor the track 
indicated on his chart, appear to allow for an excursion to Fondal itself. 



228 



ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORWAY. 



appear that either of those eminent naturalists visited the 
spot. Both these authorities call the ice mountains Kunnen, 
which properly is the name of the headland described at 
page 53. In the same latitude with Cape Kunnen, but 
in the interior, is an isolated snow-field called Saulotjack, 
which, however, yields no glacier.* 

Lat. 70°.l. Sulitelma, the highest mountain within the 
Arctic Circle, situated about fifty miles inland on the fron- 
tier between Norway and Lulean Lapland, is connected with 
extensive snowy ranges and large glaciers. It would be 
worthy of notice, if only from the pains bestowed on the 
illustration of it by the philosophic Wahlenberg. It is 
nearly half a century since this eminent physical geo- 
grapher investigated the glaciers of Sulitelma in a 
manner which had not been done in any other place, 
save the vicinity of Mont Blanc, and which has not 
yet been done for the far more accessible, and not less 
interesting snow fields and glaciers of southern Nor- 
way. The eminent naturalists of that interesting country 
will not, I hope, delay longer to investigate all the par- 

* Since the above was written, I have received important unpublished 
information from Professor Munch, regarding the glaciers of Fondal. The 
outline of the snow field has been indicated on the map as correctly as the 
scale admits of. On the seaward side we have a glacier of the first order, 
descending to the Nord-fiord, a small branch of the Mel-fiord ; three others 
descend to the Holands-fiord, which is the innermost part of the Skars-fiord. 
The snow field extends to within a short distance of Bejern, on the 67th 
parallel. On the landward side we have (probably) a glacier called Hat- 
visvagge Jsekna, in lat. 66° 47'. The eastern boundary of the snow field 
touches Storm-vand and Eiter-vand ; and farther south, a considerable 
glacier descends to the Svartiis lake, which it partly fills. This is in the 
neighbourhood of the Ranen-fiord. Any one intending to explore these 
glaciers, should provide himself with Professor Munch's lately published 
Map of Northern Norway, where all these names will be found. 



GLACIERS OF SULITELMA. 



229 



ticulars connected with these phenomena, which the pass- 
ing stranger dares only guess at. In 1807, Wahlenberg 
passed several weeks under a tent at the large lake Virih- 
jaur, which lies close under the eastern declivity of the 
range of Sulitelma, and at 1900 English feet above the 
level of the sea. This he describes as the centre of the 
Lapland Alps ; and from it he made numerous excur- 
sions, exploring the range of Sulitelma, ascending its 
highest point on the 15th July, which he found to be 
5796 French, or nearly 6200 English feet, and minutely 
examined its glaciers. The results were published in a 
thin quarto volume at Stockholm in 1808, of which I give 
the exact title in a note. I have been able to meet 
with no copy of a German translation by Hausmann. I 
have, however, ascertained the general scope of the 
work, which contains a careful engraving of the glacier of 
Salajegna, and a most excellent map. It is evident that 
Wahlenberg was well acquainted with De Saussure's clas- 
sification of glaciers in the Alps.| The range of Sulitelma 
has a height of 4600 French feet, and is extensive. The 
height of the north or highest summit has been just given, 
the south top is 5173 French feet, and it is between the two 
that the glacier in question takes its rise, descending towards 
the lake of Pieskijaur on the south. It is of great width, 

* G. Wahlenberg, Beriittelse om Matningar Og Observationer for att 
bestamma Lappska Fjallens Hojd och Temperatur vid 67 Graders 
Polhqjd. Stockholm 1808. 4to, 58 pages, map and 3 plates. The Ger- 
man translation was printed in 1812. 

\ In one or two instances, however, he inadvertently reverses the well- 
known definition of glaciers of the first and second order ; as when he terms 
the Salajegna as one of the second order, describing it, however, clearly in 
detail as one of the first, viz., extending far below the snow line. — Flora 
Lapp. Tntrod. p. xxxvi. 



230 



ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORWAY. 



and appears not to have a long course. Durocher states 
the inferior level of the glacier (of course on the authority 
of Wahlenberg, who alone has visited it) to be 780 metres, 
or 2550 feet ; therefore, nearly 1000 feet below the snow 
line on the Lapland side. 

o 

Of the group of Sulitelnia is the summit of Almajalos, 
5200 French feet high, and bearing at least two glaciers, 
Almajalos-jegna and Lina-jegna — the former on the north, 
the latter on the south side. Its prolongation on the Nor- 
wegian side is called Blaamands-field, and is that repre- 
sented in the woodcut, page 56, as seen from Bodo. A 
little farther north (lat. 6 7°. 3) is the flat-topped Tulpa- 
jegna, rising to only 4000 English feet. It possesses only 
small glaciers terminating at a high level.* 

Lat. 68°. About this latitude are four detached summits 
of the main chain covered with perpetual snow, but, so far 
as is known, not connected with glaciers. They bear the 
names of Getsetjack, Pernitjack, Midatjack, and Alte- 
kaisse, and are inserted in the map on Wahlenberg' s autho- 
rity. 

Lat. 68°.2. The Lofodden range of islands attains the 
snow line at least in three places, in Vest Vaagen, Ost 
Vaagen, and Hindo. The wild snowy mountain peaks of 
the second are shown in the view of the Svart-fiord, Plate 
III., but it is evident that in such a country the snow can- 
not accumulate ; in Hindo a glacier mentioned by Von Buch 
descends from the Fisketind. 

Lat. 68°.9. Andorgo, at the north end, a small well cha- 
racterized glacier of the second order. 

* Erroneously called of the first order in the same page of Wahlen- 
berg's Flora. The glaciers of Almajalos are apparently of the first order. 



GLACIERS OF FINMARKEN. 



231 



Lat. 69°. 4. Bensjordstind, a considerable glacier, though 
probably not overpassing the snow line. Seepage 67. 

Lat 69°. 7. The promontory of Lyngen, which includes 
the highest land of the far north, has a considerable snow 
field, which sends down true glaciers of the first order on 
both sides. On the west, or towards Ulfs-fiord, we have the 
Jagersvand glacier 5 on the east, or towards Lyngen-fi ord, 
there are the glaciers of Pippertind, Reendal, and probably 
another. 

Lat. 69°.9. In the island of Eingvadso a small glacier 
occupies the hollow of a mountain at a considerable height, 
which has formerly been much larger, and has pushed its 
moraine to the water's edge. See page 74. 

Lat 70°. 0. On the island of Kaagen, the well defined 
glacier represented in the wood engraving, page 77. 

The Qvenanger Tinderne probably send down a glacier 
towards the fiord of the same name.* 

Lat. 70°.2. The Jokuls-field, a snow-covered promontory 
of very considerable extent, sends down glaciers on at least 
three sides, and all approach nearly to the level of the sea. 
That in the small Jokuls-fiord is actually bathed by the sea, 
and projects over it like the glaciers of Spitzbergen. The 
Bergs-fiord on the north includes at least one fine glacier. 
The glaciers of the Nus-fiord on the east are represented in 
Plate V. These are the northernmost glaciers on the con- 
tinent of Europe which descend below the snow line.f 

* The indication on the map is not worthy of confidence as shewing the 
true locality. It was described to me by Consul Crowe of Christiania, as 
descending on the north side of the Logsund, a ramification of the Qvenan- 
ger fiord, which will be found on the -sea charts, but not on any map which 
I have now within reach. 

■J- There is a small one, I believe, referred to by Everest, in connection 
with the perpetual snow of the island of Seiland, in lat. 70°. 4. 



232 



ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGKAPHY OF NOEWAY. 



Only one or two summits near Alten attain the snow line, 
and the hills being lower in the interior of Finmarken than 
on the coast, at the same time that the snow line is higher, 
perpetual snow may be said to be entirely unknown there, 
as well as at the North Cape, in Finland, and in Eussia in 
Europe. 

§ 5. The Glaciers of Norway compared to those of 
Switzerland. 

The forms of the Norwegian mountains contrasted with 
the Alps have been aptly enough compared by Wittich — the 
former to the embrasures of a parapet, _J~ \_J~ LPLPLTL 
the latter to a ridge- and-furrow roof, 
the depressions in the former representing the profound 
gorges which intersect the rocky plateaux ; in the latter 
the usual alternation of mountain and valley. When such 
mountains are covered with snow, the difference of effect is 
manifest ; in the former it spreads over vast table-lands with 
tolerable uniformity, or melts in the profound intersections ; 
in the latter it drifts and slides into valleys of great eleva- 
tion, and by accumulation it forms glaciers. The glaciers of 
Norway are not therefore so large as might be expected, or 
at least there are but two or three large ones in the whole 
country, and these are of an order inferior to such great 
glaciers as the Aar, Aletsch, and Mer de Glace of Cha- 
mouni. The largest glacier in Norway (Lodal) may be 
rudely estimated to have only one-seventh of the surface of 
the Aletch glacier, tributaries in both cases being excluded ; 
but the snow field connected with it may cover 400 English 
square miles at least, which probably exceeds in extent 



GLAC1EES OF NORWAY AND SWITZERLAND COMPARED. 233 

anything in the Alps. The perpetual snows of the Fon- 
dalen are much larger, and those of Sulitelma not inferior. 

It results from all the observations which I was able to 
make in Norway (and there is that in the physiognomy of 
glaciers which enables us to form a tolerably just opinion 
regarding even those which I did not actually walk over), 
that the conditions and structure of the Norwegian glaciers 
are almost identical with those of Switzerland, with the 
exception merely of the table-like forms of the snows with 
which they are connected. Even the climatic influences 
have much in common. The elevation of the Alpine 
valleys produces an effect analogous in many respects to 
the higher latitude of Norway. The intense heat of 
the summer days in both situations is notorious, aided 
in the one case (Norway) by the almost constant 
sunshine; in the other (Switzerland) by the influence of 
height in increasing its intensity, j The cold of winter is 
exaggerated in a similar manner in both situations. The 
fall of rain is no doubt very great in Norway, from 
its exposure to the Atlantic ; but the enormous mass of 
the Alps favours the formation of cloud to such an extent 
as nearly to compensate this. Whilst the plains of Switzer- 
land and Piedmont have but 30 or 35 inches of rain 
annually, there falls at the Great St. Bernard (8000 feet, 

* Such glaciers, for instance, as the Folgefond, are not known in the 
Alps. 

\ This is not a theoretical result merely. It results from the experi- 
ments which I made in 1832, with the assistance of Mr.Kamtz, that the radiant 
heat of a summer day is far more intense about the level of the snow line than 
in the valleys. The direct influence of the sun-heat absorbed by the snow, 
which it melts, is to be carefully distinguished from its comparatively feeble 
effect in warming the air, which, taking place principally by the contact with 
heated soil, is ineffectual when the air reposes on snow at 32°. 



234 



ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORWAY. 



chiefly of course in the form of snow) nearly 60, and in 
the south-eastern Alps the fall of rain quite equals that at 
Bergen. Many persons will be surprised to learn that at 
Tolmezzo, only 1000 feet above the sea, 90 inches of rain 
fall. From these data we can perceive the strong analogy 
which prevails between Norway and the Alps. The chief dif- 
ference is no doubt to be found in the shortness and greater 
comparative intensity of the summer heat in the north. 

Every thing which I saw in Norway tends to confirm 
the theory of the cause of the motion of the glaciers, 
expounded by me some years ago, as well as the facts on 
which that theory was chiefly based. The leading facts 
attempted to be established in my former work on this 
subject,| as results of observation, are these: — 1. That 
the downward motion of the ice from the mountains 
towards the valleys is a continuous and regular motion, 
going on day and night without starts or stops. 2. That 
it occurs in winter as well as in summer, though less in 
amount. 3. That it varies at all times, with the tem- 
perature, being less in cold than in hot weather. 4. That 
rain and melting snow tends to accelerate the glacier mo- 
tion. 5. That the centre of the glacier moves faster than 
the sides, as is the case in a river. G. The surface of the 
glacier moves faster than the bottom, also as in a river. 
7. The glacier moves fastest {other tilings being supposed alike) 
on steep inclinations. 8. The motion of a glacier is 
not prevented, nor its continuity hindered, by contrac- 
tions of the rocky channel in which it moves, nor by 
the inequalities of its bed. 9. The crevasses are for 

* Average of 25 years. In 1806, 151 inches fell. See Schouw's 
admirable work on the climate of Italy. Suppl. p. 216. 

+ Travels in the Alps of Savoy, &c, particularly chap. xxi. 



LAWS AND THEORY OF GLACIER MOTION. 



235 



the most part formed anew annually — the old ones dis- 
appearing by the collapse of the ice during and after the 
hot season. 

These well established facts give rise to certain pecu- 
liarities in the form and appearance of glaciers, which are 
easily recognised by one accustomed to such observations, 
but on which we cannot now dwell. All of these I have 
observed on one or other of the Norwegian glaciers. 

I conclude, therefore, that the differences are slight and 
immaterial between the glaciers of central Europe and 
those of Scandinavia. The theory of their motion, which 
I have deduced from the facts above stated or referred to, 
is this : — That a glacier is a plastic mass impelled by gravity, 
having tenacity sufficient to mould itself upon the obstacles 
which it encounters, and to permit one portion to slide 
past another without fracture, except when the forces are 
so violent as to produce discontinuity in the form of a cre- 
vasse, or more generally of a bruised condition of the mass 
so acted on; — that, in consequence, the motion of such a mass 
on a great scale resembles that of a river, allowance being 
made for almost incomparably greater viscosity, — hence the 
retardation of the sides and bottom : Finally, that diminution 
of temperature, diminishing the plasticity of the ice and also 
the hydrostatic pressure of the water which fills every pore 
in summer, retards its motion, whilst warmth and wet pro- 
duce a contrary effect. These are the opinions which I laid 
down in 1842, and which ten years' experience and con- 
sideration have only tended to confirm. 

In one instance only have I been able to infer the probable 
annual progress of the ice of a Norwegian glacier. This was 
in the Krondal glacier, of which, by means of the intervals 
of the " dirt bands," I estimated the annual progress at 



236 



ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORWAY. 



168 feet. It appeared to me to be pretty much what I 
should have expected in Switzerland in a similar situation. 
I conclude, on the whole, that the plasticity of the Norwe- 
gian glaciers is greater in summer than in those of the Alps, 
and also that their season of rapid motion is probably shorter, 
which will compensate on the whole for its greater swiftness. 
This might be also inferred from the fact, that so long as the 
day is perpetual, or nearly so, the long diurnal pause in the 
liquefying process which produces so marked and impressive 
an effect towards sunset on the Swiss glaciers scarcely 
occurs ; thaw is or may be almost continuous ; the ice is 
dissolving unintermittedly for weeks together. This also 
produces an excessive amount of melting snow during the 
24 hours, part of which goes to lubricate and saturate the 
glacier. It is easy to see how effectual such a continuous 
action must be in softening the ice, compared to an inter- 
mitting one. Again, the shortness of the arctic summer is 
well known : six weeks of fine weather is a fair allow- 
ance. Consequently the season of greatest plasticity is as 
short as it is intense ; the growth of the glacier may be 
compared to the growth of the luxuriant herbage. Conse- 
quently a long winter of comparative immobility fills up 
most of the year. 

This, I say, might have been inferred beforehand ; but 
my observations, so far as they go, lead to the same con- 
clusions. I may mention, as a striking though incidental 
illustration, the beautiful little glacier of Kaagen, in lat. 
70° (see the Figure, page 77) in which the form of a 
trickling tear is so well exhibited as to present strikingly a 
" collective instance "t of the plastic theory, bearing evi- 

* Sec Travels in the Alps, p. 21. 
f Bacon. Compare llcrschcl, Discourse on Nat. Phil. Art. 194. 



THE ANCIENT GLACIERS OF NORWAY— ESMARK. 



237 



clence in its mere aspect, of the ductility and tenacity of 
the gravid drop. I might indeed affirm that a glance at 
this one phenomenon from the deck of the steamer would 
have satisfied me, had other proof been wanting, that the 
consistence and mode of progression of a glacier is the 
same in latitude 70° as in latitude 45°. The remarkable 
state of collapse and reconsolidation of the crevasses which 
I observed on the remarkably crystalline and firm ice of 
the Nygaard glacier early in the month of August, is a 
similar example. 

§ 6. On the former Extension of Glaciers in Norway. 

Whilst the courageous Venetz was maintaining in Swit- 
zerland, single-handed and without sympathy, the bold 
theory of the former wide extension and geological activity 
of the Alpine glaciers,* a Scandinavian naturalist, Professor 
Esmark of Christiania, was drawing similar conclusions from 
the facts which his own country placed before him. There 
is no reason to suppose — but the contrary — that he knew 
of Venetz's paper, contained in a volume of scientific trans- 
actions of not the widest circulation; but he was led to 
speculate upon the former great extension of ice and snow 
in Norway, from facts precisely parallel and equally para- 
doxical with those which awakened the attention of 
Venetz, and had already prompted the happy forethought 
of Playfair and Hall,f the occurrence, namely, of enormous 
angular blocks of primitive rock, deposited on the flat 
southern shores of the Baltic, exactly as on the summits of 

* See my travels in the Alps of Savoy, chap. hi. 
\ Ibid. p. 41, and Sir James Hall's papers in the Edin. Transactions. 



238 



ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OP NORWAY. 



the Jura hills are to be found the wrecks of the central 
chain of Alps. 

The observations of Esrnark having been published in the 
Danish language in a local periodical work, and, though 
they found their way into one British journal,* being little 
known, I shall quote a few sentences from them to show 
the clear opinions held by the author, and the resemblance 
of his conclusions to those which have been since broached 
as new. Their date, as will be seen, extends back at least 
to 1823. 

Esmark observes, " In no other satisfactory way than 
by the operation of ice can we explain how those prodi- 
giously large loose stones, sometimes with sharp corners, 
have been brought up to the ridges and tops of high moun- 
tains, which are found in such numbers in the province of 
Christiansand." He adds, that the nature of the boulders 
being quite different from that of the adjoining rocks, they 
must have been brought from a great distance and " pushed 
high up on the mountains." f . ..." In travelling over 
our mountainous districts, especially towards Osterdal, it 
will frequently be found that the slope of the mountain to- 
wards the valley is covered with large loose stones, mixed 
with a great quantity of loose sand and gravel, and that 
this covering extends to a considerable height over the 
bottom of the valley." .... " We find the large stones 
lying separated from one another, surrounded by sand and 
gravel, a circumstance which cannot be explained in another 
way than by supposing that the whole has formerly been 
filled up with ice, which has pushed the whole mixed mass 

* Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, vol. iii. (1827.) Esmark on 
the Geological history of the Earth. 

-j- This expression is only applicable to a glacier, not to rafts of ice. 



ANCIENT MORAINE OF VASBOTTEN. 



239 



up the slope of the mountain. The water of the ice, after- 
wards thawing, carried off by its rapid streams a part of 
the stones and gravel, which were then heaped together, 
deeper down in the valley ; these heaps resemble entirely 
those which glaciers carry before them." 

Perhaps the most curious passage relates to Esmark's 
observations in 1823 between Fossand and Vasbotten, situ- 
ated, the former on the Hole-fiord, 14 English miles in a 
straight line, E.S.E. (by Munch' s map) from Stavanger, on 
the west coast of Norway. After describing the character of 
the valley, he proceeds — " At the upper end, this sandy plain 
was bounded by a glacier dyke or rampart, which extended 
across the whole valley. This glacier dyke is remarkable, 
and, so far as I know, the only one of its kind lying close to 
the level of the sea, in a district where you find only a few 
heaps of perpetual snow in hollows of the mountains where it 
slopes to the north-east, at the height of from 2000 to 3000 
Rhenish feet above the sea. Its length, across the valley 
from mountain to mountain, is 2250 feet ; its perpendicular 

height above the plain 100 The dyke itself consists 

of coarse gravel and sand, mixed with immense blocks of 
gneiss, which is the prevailing rock in the mountain. .... 
Not only the dyke itself, but the whole horizontal surface 
exhibits proofs that there has been a glacier here, for the 
plain exactly resembles those which I found adjoining the 
glaciers presently existing between Sond-fiord and Lomb, 
in Guldbrandsdal, where I had likewise occasion to travel 
last summer. The resemblance is so striking, that every 
one who has had an opportunity of making the comparison 
must form the same opinion." 

An extract has already been given (page 103, note) from 
a farther portion of this paper of Esmark, in which he as- 



240 ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OP NORWAY. 

cribes the fluting of the rocks near the entrance of the 
Sogne-fiord to an immense glacier. 

The analogy of these observations, especially of the 
moraine of Vasbotten, to corresponding facts in the British 
isles, particularly in Skye and North Wales, which are now 
unhesitatingly ascribed to ancient glaciers, must be very 
striking to those who have attended to the recent progress 
of opinion on this subject. It can hardly be doubted, 
that every part of Europe, nay, the greater part of the 
world, affords similar indications. In the Himalayas, 
where the interesting researches of Vigne, Strachey, and 
Thomson have established the existence of glaciers of 
enormous dimensions, whose motions appear to be regu- 
lated by the very same laws as those of Switzerland and 
Savoy, we have also sufficient testimony of a former much 
wider extension, although the degree of that extension 
may still remain a matter of doubt. The existence of ter- 
minal moraines, like that above described, is clearly expli- 
cable on no theory yet defined, save that of glaciers ; ice 
rafts could have no tendency to produce such an effect. 

I have no intention of entering into the question whe- 
ther all the grooved, fluted, and striated rocks in Scandi- 
navia can be explained by the existence of a " calotte " or 
covering of ice, enveloping the mainland, and sending off 
glaciers dipping into the sea, and furnishing icebergs 
loaded with the blocks of their moraines, which were 
ultimately diffused and wrecked on the shores of Denmark, 
North Prussia, and even England. This would lead me to 
a dissertation, for the extent of which my own inconsider- 
able observations on the subject could afford no apology. It 
is impossible to read what lias been stated for and against 
the supposition or hypothesis in question, without feeling 



IS THE HYPOTHESIS OF ANCIENT GLACIEES SUFFICIENT? 241 



that arguments have been raised in its favour, and met by 
counter assertions, each of which show more zeal than 
knowledge. In truth, it has become far too much of a 
party question. Whilst I think it quite impossible to deny 
the existence of vast glaciers, both in Norway and else- 
where, producing the effects which have been ascribed to 
them by Esmark, and many of those noticed by Mr. R. 
Chambers and by myself, I hesitate to ascribe every thing to 
the same cause. In fact, there appear to me to be situa- 
tions along the coast of Norway where abrasion is most 
manifest (for one example, the Logsund near the Hardanger- 
fiord), where the action is parallel to the line of coast, and 
the movement of a glacier would consequently be incon- 
ceivable. The general parallelism of the striae, observed by 
Bothlink and others over a large area of country, not co-in- 
cident with the general fall of the ground, would seem, if 
confirmed, to be equally inexplicable on the pure glacier 
hypothesis. The continuation of the strife across table- 
lands and over cols is of the like ambiguous character. I 
have never hesitated to express, on similar grounds, doubts 
as to the universal application of the usual glacier theory to 
the phenomena of our own islands, which, on a small scale, 
are the counterpart of those of Norway. For, though I am 
perfectly satisfied that our hills were in former times the 
seat of glaciers, which even approached the sea level, I 
find the utmost difficulty in explaining by such an hypo- 

* Mr. Chambers describes especially the singular appearance of the 
country about the summit level between Throndhjem and Rundsvall on the 
Bothnian Gulf, which, at 2000 feet above the sea, tolerably level, is smoothed 
and polished all over with fine striae, running N.E. and S.W. obliquely across 
the direction of the main water-courses. — Tracings of the North of Europe, 
p. 234. 

R 



242 ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NOEWAY. 

thesis alone, the facts which occur even in the immediate 
vicinity of Edinburgh. 

On the other hand, I will state some considerations 
which seem to lessen or remove difficulties which have been 
urged against the opinion that Norway was once nearly 
covered by snow and ice. That this was really the case is, 
I think, rendered probable by the facts so well described by 
Esmark, as well as by the grooving and polishing of the val- 
leys connected with the great plateaux in the direction of 
their declivities (as in the valleys of the Driva and of Jus- 
tedal), and by the evidence for a limit to the height of the 
abrading action, which lowers as we approach the coast, and 
is marked by the contrast of the roclies moutonnees below, 
with the rugged peaks which rise over them. (See the 
view of the rocks of Folden-fiord, Plate II.) To these may be 
added the existence of moraines, especially terminal mo- 
raines ; and, though I speak conjee turally, I have little 
doubt that the terraces, which are well known to exist in 
Sweden and Lapland between the Kjolen range and the 
Gulf of Bothnia, are due, in some degree at least, to the 
continuous moraines of ancient glaciers descending on that 
side from mountains still partially covered with perpetual 
snow. Such moraines almost invariably produce lakes ; 
and it is well known that a chain of lakes at nearly equal 
heights above the sea interrupt the courses of the numerous 
rivers of that wide and desolate country. I repeat, how- 
ever, that this is only a conjecture. 

The main argument against the former extension of gla- 
ciers has been the great change of climate, which has been 
considered necessary to account for it. It has been usual to 
calculate the fall of mean temperature required in any lati- 
tude to bring the glaciers to the level of the sea, by supposing 



CONDITIONS OP A CHANGE OP CLIMATE. 



243 



that each degree (of Fahrenheit) of depression will lower the 
snow line by about 300 feet. Consequently, it is argued — 
to have glaciers at the level of the sea in the south of Nor- 
way, the snow line must be lowered 5500 feet, correspond- 
ing to some 18° of Fahrenheit — a prodigious change. But 
the principle is incorrect. It is on the summer temperature 
mainly that the position of the snow line depends. It is 
exceedingly probable that a diminution of the temperature 
of the summer months by 4° only would at once place 
one-fourth of the surface of Norway within the snow line ; 
and so vast a mass of perpetual snow would refrigerate the 
climate (especially the summer temperature) to such a 
degree as would unquestionably pour glaciers into the head 
of every fiord in western Norway. In a former page* I have 
shown the singular manner in which the surface of the high 
ground of Norway is everywhere almost parallel to the 
snow plane, which, by a very slight depression, would cover 
all its table-lands ; and I have also referred to the pecu- 
liarity of the climate of Iceland, where snow lies in lat. 65° 
at only 940 metres or less than 3100 feet above the sea, 
whilst in the same latitude the snow line in Norway is at 
3900 feet, and even on the coast 3500. f Yet the mean 
temperature of Reikiavig in Iceland is very little short of 
* P. 215. 

-j- The snow line in Iceland is given on the authority of Durocher, by 
whose calculation (with which, however, I do not agree) it is no less than 
477 metres, or above 1560 Eng. feet, below the height due to the latitude. — 
Voyage en Scandinavie, Oeog. Phys. p. 311. Wahlenberg places it far 
lower, — viz., at 2100 French feet, if I understand him correctly. — Bera'tt- 
else, &c, p. 49. In Dr. Rink's paper on the Continental Ice of Green- 
land, lately communicated to the Eoyal Geographical Society, it is stated 
that the snow line on the eastern coast of Baffin's Bay, between lat. 68° and 
74°, may be stated to occur, on an average, at somewhat more than 2000 
feet above the sea. The climate is more continental than that of Iceland. 



244 



ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORWAY. 



that of Throndhjem in Norway, which has besides a some- 
what lower latitude, and is many degrees superior to that 
of the Swedish side of the peninsula on the same parallel. 
We have only therefore to suppose that the climate of 
Norway has become more insular and less continental 
— that the summers are colder, the winters milder than 
formerly — in order to account for an almost indefinite 
extension of snow, and the possibility of abundant gla- 
ciers on its coasts wherever the form of the valleys encou- 
rages their formation, and wherever the declivity of the ground 
is sufficient to allow the plastic development of the ice. An 
example in an extreme case will show the immense influ- 
ence of the seasons. The mean temperature of the North 
Cape is known to be nearly 32° of Fahrenheit (which 
at one time was imagined to be that of the North Pole 
itself). If the difference of summer and winter were insen- 
sible, it is manifest that the snow line would be at the sur- 
face of the sea ; but it is (theoretically) still 2800 feet high 
(page 214), consequently the extreme effect of season alone 
here amounts to that quantity. But farther, a diminution 
of the extremes of temperature would, in the first place, be 
most likely accompanied by an increased fall of rain and 
snow ; in the next place, the lowering of the snow line 
over so large a surface would deteriorate the climate and 
lower the mean temperature, which would thus lower the 
snow line still further; lastly, the theory of ice rafts, 
diluvial currents, &c, all presuppose a relative change of 
the level of land and sea, tending to render the climate 
more insular than at present, as the glacial theory requires, 
in fact, to make Scandinavia an island altogether. 

Yet even when all of these accommodations are admit- 
ted, it is much easier to propose difficulties than to answer 



OBSERVATIONS DESIRABLE TO BE MADE. 



245 



them. All that I contend for is the extreme probability of 
a much more extended covering of snow and ice both in 
Scandinavia and elsewhere ; but above all other countries 
in Norway, where, from the causes explained, a very slight 
disturbance of temperature would produce an almost in- 
credible change in its climate, and would render it nearly 
uninhabitable. 

It is one result of the progress of science to show the 
nice adjustments upon which the stability of the existing 
order of events depends. It is no longer necessary to in- 
voke violent displacements of the earth's axis, or the atmos- 
phere of a comet's tail, to alter our climates, and desolate 
our continents. The submergence of Europe to a small 
extent in the ocean, a diversion of the great oceanic cur- 
rents,° or an alteration in the mean dampness of the air, 
would alter all the conditions of life on our continents, 
and clothe them with abundant snows, such as we find in 
the southern hemisphere. 

§ 7. On some Observations desirable to be made. 

I will briefly refer to a few of the many observations 
desirable to be made with reference to the glaciers of 
Norway, which may be recommended to future tra- 
vellers : — 

1. To ascertain whether unquestionable and well de- 
fined snow fields occur south of lat. 60° ; the level of the 

* A very eminent foreign geologist once suggested to me the possibility 
that the rise of temperature since the glacial period might he due to the di- 
rection of the Gulf Stream upon the coasts of Europe by the elevation of the 
American continent. 



246 



ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORWAY. 



snow line, and the period of the year at which it retreats 
highest. 

2. To examine the glaciers on the west slope of the 
Justedal mountains, and at the head of Sogndal and Veite- 
strandswand, and to trace to their origin the remarkable 
granite boulders which seem to be derived from thence 
(page 155). 

3. To select amongst the glaciers of the Justedal range 
one or more suitable for careful observations of progression, 
both during the height of summer, and from year to year. 
The Lodals glacier is probably one of the best. 

4. To ascertain carefully the snow line of the Folgefond, 
and in Nord-fiord (between Justedal and the sea). 

5. To visit and describe the glaciers of the Ymes- 
field, &c. 

G. To explore the country to the W. and N.W. of Snee- 
hiittan on the Dovre-field ; to observe its geology, and ascer- 
tain the level and extent of its snow fields. 

7. Generally, in the preceding excursions, to notice the 
occurrence of grooved and polished rocks, and the direction, 
by compass, of the striae, especially on level places, not in 
the declivities of valleys. The attempt to trace generally 
the boulders to their origin could only be attempted by per- 
sons familiarly conversant .with the intricate and obscure 
geology of Norway. But moraines should be watched for 
and sketched. That of Vasbotten, near Stavanger, men- 
tioned by Esmark, would be worthy of a visit. 

8. In Nordland, and the higher north, the traveller may 
explore the Borgefield, between the Namsen and Vefsen, 
rivers frequented for their fishing by numerous tourists. 

9. The glaciers and snow fields of Fondal (lat. 6G°-G7°) 
would unquestionably repay a week or a fortnight's re- 



OBSERVATIONS DESIRABLE TO BE MADE. 



247 



search. From the steam-boat station of Rodo, the Mels- 
fiord, Holands-fiord, and Gloms-fiord, might be easily 
visited, of which the two first at least contain glaciers at a 
very low level. The mountains of Fondal are in a great 
measure detached from the interior chain, and it is pro- 
bable that the explorer might return from Gilleskaal, be- 
yond Cape Kunnen, by the landward side, to the head of 
the Eanen-fiord (lat. 6G° 10'), and rejoin the steamer. 

10. The promontory of Lyngen, with its numerous gla- 
ciers, might be made the object of an excursion from 
Tromso, with the aid of the steamer. 

11. A detailed examination of the Bergs-fiord, Jokuls- 
fiord, and Qvenanger range, has been already recommended 
(page 84). 

12. Every opportunity should be taken to ascertain the 
direction of the abrading and smoothing agency, which has 
left such extraordinary traces along the coast, between the 
Throndhj em-fiord and the Lofoddens ; and in general it 
should be sought to observe how far the striee correspond 
or not in direction with the general declivity of the ground, 
or whether they are in any case extensively parallel with the 
coast. 

13. The limits of vegetation of the birch and the snow 
line should be observed wherever practicable ; but with 
regard to the latter, the great difficulty of ascertaining the 
extreme limit of recession of the snow should be bome in 
mind, and the time of year, the character of the season, 
and the exposure, should be particularly noticed. 

14. The meteorology of Norway is in a state which is 
not creditable to the acknowledged intelligence of the 
people, and the eminence of its scientific men. I know of 
but two places, Christiania and Kaa-fiord (separated by 



248 



ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORWAY. 



10° of latitude), of which the mean temperature is known 
with any accuracy. This is lamentable in a country whose 
climate is one of the most interesting in Europe. The 
means of remedying it seem easy. Let observations, in the 
first instance, be confined to the thermometer. It is impos- 
sible to doubt that a net-work of, say 50 stations, might be 
quickly established over the entire country. The intelli- 
gent officers of the Royal Marine and Trigonometrical 
Survey, the clergy (who have almost all had a university 
education), the masters of schools and academies, like my 
well-informed friend, Mr. Blom, at Tromso, the active 
magistrates and civil officers, even the station-holders and 
substantial merchants on the steamboat routes, would pro- 
bably, in many instances, lend a cheerful aid to so simple 
and interesting an inquiry; whilst the combination of the 
results could not be placed in better hands than those of 
the professors of Christiania. 

§ 8. On some Peculiarities of the Scenery of Norway. 

Waterfalls. 

The scenery of Norway, which is, of course, the result 
of its physical peculiarities, may be divided into three 
classes — that of its valleys, its fields, and its fiords. The 
first resembles, on the whole, that of the tamer parts of the 
Alps ; often picturesque, sometimes grand, and occasionally 
highly pleasing, especially near the lakes. The second is in 
some degree peculiar to this country, and must disappoint 
many who are not prepared for its singularity. These fields, 
or fjelds, are often interminable wildernesses, undulating or 
varied only by craggy heights devoid of majesty, rarely 



PECULIARITIES OF NORWEGIAN SCENERY. 



249 



attaining the snow line, but spotted over with ungainly 
patches of white. Von Buch, all whose descriptions betray 
a very ardent determination to exalt the scenery of Norway, 
compares the aspect of Sneehattan to that of Mont Blanc 
as seen from the Breven ! But it would be difficult, I should 
think, to find a seconder for such a judgment. The height 
of the summits of Norwegian mountains above the table- 
land which forms their base, is usually too small to give 
them much effect. But the scenery of the fiords and the 
profound valleys, which may be considered as the mere 
prolongation of them, is the really distinguishing feature 
of Norway as regards the picturesque. It is analogous, 
indeed, to that of the west coast of Scotland, but on a scale 
of much greater grandeur ; and by those who have fully 
appreciated, with due leisure and under favourable circum- 
stances of weather, the magnificent scenery of our Hebrides, 
including Orkney and Shetland, and the western firths, the 
praise will not seem small. The depth of the inlets, the 
precipitousness and continuity of the cliffs, the number and 
singular forms of the rocks and islands, occasion a succession 
of prospects the most varied and surprising. Then the 
frequent appearance of perpetual snow, and the occur- 
rence of glaciers close to the sea, give a vivid contrast to 
the luxuriance of vegetation, and the warm tones of colour 
which in fine weather commonly prevail. 

But of all the contrasts which Norway presents to other 
mountainous countries, the abundance of running water is 
perhaps the most striking to a stranger 5 its noble rivers 
and its impressive waterfalls are perhaps the features of the 
scenery most generally dwelt upon, and many tourists 
seem to make the latter the sole or main objects of their 
search. This, I think, is a mistake. A cascade is a noble 



250 



ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORWAY. 



object as forming part of a landscape, but it is often situated 
so as to be well seen only wlien every other part of the land- 
scape is excluded. If dwelt upon exclusively, it becomes a 
mere lusus natures, not an element of scenery ; and, if made 
the exclusive object of a laborious journey, can scarcely fail 
to disappoint. I have not seen the most celebrated falls of 
Norway, for my other objects of inquiry did not lead me 
near them*, but having visited those of other countries, I 
have come to the conclusion that, setting aside the curiosity 
and rarity of a lofty cascade, smaller waterfalls, unexpect- 
edly discovered in picturesque situations, convey a truer 
sense of pleasure and beauty to the mind, than the thunder- 
ing shoots which tumble often into nearly inaccessible 
gorges. In the former class, Norway abounds beyond 
calculation ; running water of a bright and sparkling green 
is seen on every side, at least in the valleys ; it pours over 
cliffs often in a single leap, but more frequently and more 
effectively in a series of broken falls spreading laterally as 
it descends, and rivetting the imagination for a long time 
together in the attempt to trace its subtle ramifications. 
The sound is rather a murmur than a roar, so divided are 
the streams, and so numerous the shelves of rock tipped 
with foam ; whilst a luxuriant vegetation of birch and 
alder overarches the whole, instead of being repelled by the 
wild tempest of air which accompanies the greater cataract. 
At other times single threads of snow-white water stretch 
down a steep of 2000 feet or more, connecting the field 
above and the valley below ; they look so slender that we 
wonder at their absolute uniformity and perfect whiteness 
throughout so great a space — never dissipated in air, never 
disappearing under debris ; but on approaching these seem- 
ing threads we are astonished at their volume, which is 



PROFUSION OF WATERFALLS. 



251 



usually such as completely to stop communication from 
bank to bank. 

The source of this astonishing profusion of waters is to 
be found in the peculiar disposition of the surface of the 
country so often referred to. The mountains are wide and 
flat, the valleys are deep and far apart. The surfaces of 
the former receive and collect the rain, which is then 
drained into the narrow channels of the latter ; and as the 
valleys ramify little, but usually preserve single lines, and 
are wholly disconnected from the fields by precipitous 
slopes, it follows that the single rivers which water those 
valleys represent the drainage of vast areas, and are 
supplied principally by streamlets which, having run long 
courses over the fields, are at last precipitated into the 
ravines in the form of cascades. The system might be 
represented in a homely way by great blocks of houses in 
an old-fashioned town, the roofs of which collect and 
transmit the rain-water by means of communicating gutters, 
until, on reaching the street, the whole falls by means of 
open waterspouts, flooding the water-ways below. 

But there is also another reason for this striking abun- 
dance of water. The fall of rain is large, if not excessive, 
over a great part of Norway. It is also, no doubt, greater 
on the fields than in the valleys of the interior. The 
height of the mountain plateaux is such as to be covered 
more or less with snow during two-thirds of the year or 
more ; during this period the rivers and cascades are com- 
paratively in many cases absolutely dry. The vast accu- 
mulations of autumn, winter, and spring are to be thawed 
during the almost constant warmth of the long summer 
days. In this season alone, the interior of Norway is 
usually visited, and we see the result in the amount of 



252 



ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGEAPHY OF NOEWAY. 



drainage concentrated into that brief season. In the Alps, 
no doubt, a similar cause is active ; but the comparative 
rarity of the cascades is explained by the absolute want of 
table-lands, and the infinitely ramified character of the 
valleys. In the Pyrenees, which have a still more ridge- 
like character than the Alps, the cascades are more nume- 
rous, but yet far more scanty. 



JOURNALS OF EXCURSIONS 

IN THE 

HIGH ALPS OF DAUPHINE, BERNE, 
AND SAVOY. 



SCENE AT LA BERARDE. 



CHAPTER I. 



NARRATIVE OF EXCURSIONS IN THE ALPS 
OF DAUPHINE IN 1839 AND 1841. 

BOUNDARIES OF THE DISTRICT DESCRIBED— MOUNTAINS OF OISANS— THEIR GEOLOGICAL 
PECULIA RITIKS — HOT SPRINGS — ALLEVARD — LES SEPT LAUX — ALLEMONT — BOURG 
D'OISANS — VALLEY OF THE ROMANCHE— VALLEY OF ST. CHRISTOPHE— VENOS— FALL 
OF A MOUNTAIN — VILLAGE OF ST. CHRISTOPHE — SCENE FROM LES ETAGES — MONT 
OURSINE— HAMLET OF LA BERARDE. 

Travellers have often bent their steps to the remoter 
regions of the globe to the neglect of objects worthy of 



256 



EXCURSIONS IN DAUPHINE. 



attention which might be found almost within their daily 
range. The soil of Palestine and Egypt is more trodden, 
and has been more minutely described than many parts of 
Europe, heedlessly passed over in the anxious haste to 
remove ourselves as far and as fast as possible from home 
associations. It may be doubted, however, whether those 
who pass the great highways of the Alps at a gallop, or 
are urged with almost railway speed at once by current 
and by steam down the course of the Ehine and Ehone, 
are always directing their steps to objects more worthy of 
attention (for the most part, certainly, to objects more fre- 
quently described), than those which exist but a few miles 
to the right hand or to the left of those beaten tracts, along 
which tourists follow one another, like a flock of sheep, in 
interminable succession. 

Amongst these almost un visited, yet far from inaccessible 
districts, the Alpine country of Dauphine, including part of 
the modem departments of the here and Hautes Alpes, is 
one of the most interesting, whether we regard its geologi- 
cal structure, or the almost fantastical sublimity of its 
remote and thinly peopled glens. No great road passes 
through this country. The pass of Mont Genevre, which 
approaches nearest to it, being very little traversed and 
now partly out of repair, so that the fortress of Briancon, 
the frontier town of France on this side, forms nearly the 
terminus of communication on the great line of fine road, 
which stretches along the whole course of the river Durance 
down to Aix and Avignon. Having been led in the course 
of an excursion on foot in the year 1839 amongst the 
Southern Alps, to visit a portion of this country, of which 
the interesting geology, as described by Mr. Elie de 
Beaumont, had formerly excited my attention, — and having 



LIMITS OF THE DISTRICT DESCRIBED. 



257 



penetrated a certain way into its remoter valleys, which, 
from want of time, I left with regret, — I took an opportunity 
in the summer of 1841, of revisiting them, in company with 
my friend, the Eev. J. M. Heath. We proposed crossing 
some of those cols or elevated mountain passes which are 
described as being frequented only by chamois hunters, 
although they form often the sole communication between 
valleys, distant horizontally but a few English miles — even 
this extremely limited communication being practicable 
during but a very few weeks in the finest part of summer. 
Accounts to this effect were confirmed by what I had 
previously seen of the continuous and terrific precipices 
which bound on both sides the valleys, or rather ravines, 
(called by the natives combes), of this granitic nucleus ; and 
with respect to the weather, Mr. Gueymard, an eminent 
engineer of Grenoble, has assured me that the statement I 
have quoted is by no means exaggerated, and that the 
higher mountains of Dauphine are rarely accessible for 
more than the last ten days of July and the first week or 
two of August. 

The country of which I propose to offer some description 
includes a mountain group of granitic formation, and no 
very large extent, which is separated from the main chain 
of Alps stretching from Mont Cenis to Monte Viso, by the 
great valley of the Durance, already mentioned. The form 
of the group is rudely circular, marked by the outburst of 
granitic and talcose rocks, through the prevalent strata of 
Lias and Chalk which characterise this part of France. 
It is bounded to the north by the river Isere, where it passes 
Grenoble, and by the course of the river Arc, which, tak- 
ing its rise near the Mont Cenis, flows into the Isere above 
Montmeillant. These two rivers form an angle, which is 



258 



EXCURSIONS TN DAUPHINli. 



filled by a chain of mountains also granitic, and which at 
their culmination constitute a desolate and stupendous mass, 
covered with perpetual snow, and called Les Grandes Ronsses, 
whose geological structure has been partly described by 
Mr. Dausse in the Transactions of the Geological Society 
of France. 

On the west, our district is bounded by the river Drac, 
which unites with the Isere below Grenoble, and which, 
rising at Orsiere, not far from Gap, in the department of 
the Hautes Alpes, nearly touches the river Durance, which 
again forms the south-eastern boundary of the district be- 
tween Embrun and Briancon. 

Within this space, only about forty-five English miles 
square, rises the highest summit occurring in the moun- 
tainous country between Mont Blanc and the Mediterran- 
ean. It is called Mont Pelvoux, and its height is 13,468 
English feet, as determined by the French engineers, yet it 
does not greatly exceed in elevation other summits in its 
neighbourhood, which are so imperfectly known to topo- 
graphers, and so variously or inaccurately named on 
maps (as well as by the natives), that it is difficult to ascer- 
tain their identity, on account of the unapproachable posi- 
tions which many of them occupy, surrounded by precipices, 
and by glaciers yet more inaccessible.* To this general 
group may be given the name of Montagues de VOisans, 
which has been applied to them by Mr. E. de Beaumont in 
a paper published in the 5th vol. of the Annates des Mines, 
in which he has described with much detail and spirit the 

* There exists, however, a most admirable and faithful map of Dauphine 
by General Bourcet, winch may (or might lately) be had at Paris. It is 
engraved in a quaint, old-fashioned style, but extremely clear, and its fidelity 
makes it invaluable to the traveller. 



GEOLOGY OF OTSANS — 



MR. ELIE DE BEAUMONT. 



259 



remarkable geological features which they present. These 
are of two kinds, the structure of the granitic or gneiss rock 
itself, and the phenomena which it presents when in con- 
tact with the stratified deposits of limestone which surround 
it. The whole is considered by that most eminent geolo- 
gist to afford an example of a Crater of Elevation in a for- 
mation not properly volcanic — the originally horizontal 
structural planes of the gneiss having been elevated on all 
sides towards a central point or apex, from which, conse- 
quently, they appear to dip in every direction. " It pre- 
sents," he says, " something resembling the form of a half 
closed flower, of which the stamina are represented by un- 
stratified masses of granite and dislocated fragments of 
gneiss, and of which the corolla corresponds to the strata 
of gneiss, which nearly throughout the circumference of the 
group rest upon the interior granite, and which sink be- 
neath the secondary deposits raised up around in the form 
of the calyx." * 

Mr. Elie de Beaumont was also one of the first to signa- 
lise,'!' 1X1 1829, the existence of that remarkable inversion of 
geological superposition, in which granitic rocks are found 
overlying limestones of the age of lias — a circumstance 
more lately noticed in several parts of the Swiss Alps, but 
nowhere, if we mistake not, with more perfect evidence 
than in the mountains of Oisans. 

The most considerable of the fissures of which we have 
spoken forms the channel of the river Eomanche, which 
intersects in its tortuous course some of the highest ground 
of the district. Near the village of Bourg d' Oisans, the 

* Faits pour servir a l'Histoire des Montagnes de l'Oisans, p. 30. 
j Memoires de la Societe d'Histoire Naturelle de Paris, tome 5, cited 
and figured in De la Beche's sections and views, 1830. 



260 



EXCUESIONS IN DAUPHINE. 



valley divides itself into two ; the stream which retains the 
name of the Eomanche joins the other nearly at a right 
angle, having flowed in almost a straight course from east 
to west in the profound gorge called the Combe de Malaval ; 
whilst the other branch, taking the name of the Veneon, 
runs nearly from south-east to north-west through the val- 
ley of St. Christophe, and takes its rise almost at the foot of 
the Mont Pelvoux, amongst the glaciers which fill the vast 
rocky basin in which lies the little hamlet of La Berarde, 
considered by Mr. E. de Beaumont as the centre of action 
of the elevating forces. 

The occurrence of mineral and thermal waters near the 
outskirts, and not at all in the centre of this district, con- 
firms remarkably the views which I have stated in a paper 
on the mineral waters of the Pyrenees in the " Philosophi- 
cal Transactions" for 1836. The great convulsions which 
were productive of fissures, both in the stratified and unstra- 
tified rocks, gave vent to these subterranean streams, which 
issue generally from chasms exactly on the line of demar- 
cation of the primitive and secondary formations. Mineral 
veins are also not unfrequent accompaniments. The waters 
of La Motte near La Mure, on the course of the Drac, are 
exactly in the situation just described, and appear in con- 
nexion with small outbreaks of granite indicated in the 
geological map of France. They are described as issuing 
from a ravine so narrow, confined, and precipitous, that the 
water (which is stated to have a temperature of 45° Eeau.) 
has to be carried on the back of mules to some distance 
before it can be administered medicinally. Two other 
sources which I have myself examined occur in the valley 
of the Isere, exactly on the confines of the primitive and se- 
condary rocks. That of Uriage, about six miles from 



BATHS OF ALLEVARD. 



261 



Grenoble, is sulphureous, and rises in a deep valley at the 
junction of granite and lias, which is, however, concealed 
for some way by an immense mass of detritus, through 
which the spring forces itself. It is conveyed in a subter- 
raneous conduit for a space of six or seven hundred yards 
from its source to the bathing-house, where it issues with 
a temperature of 70°.5 F. The other spring is that of Alle- 
vard, several leagues to the north-east of the former, which 
rises in a small tributary valley of the Isere, exactly where 
a stream called the Breda, descending from the high ground 
of the chain already mentioned as connected with Les 
Grandes Eousses, opens into the valley. This little ravine, 
which is wild and picturesque, appears to have been formed 
by a rent, and communicates in a manner no less striking 
in a picturesque than in a geological point of view, between 
the tame scenery of the fertile lias and the savage grandeur 
of the snow-clad granite peaks upon which this natural 
gateway immediately opens. It is exactly at the entrance, 
then, of this ravine, and within a few hundred yards of the 
junction of the limestone with the primitive talc slate, that 
the sulphureous mineral water, which is extensively em- 
ployed for medicinal purposes (although not possessing a 
high temperature), immediately rises. Extensive workings 
of carbonate of iron are carried on in the same neighbour- 
hood. ' The sparry iron divides from the walls of the vein 
innumerable fragments of the matrix, which is a greenish 
talc slate.* 

It was on the 21st of July 1841, that Mr. Heath and 
myself, profiting by the fine weather which, in the midst 

* Allevard is a convenient point from which to commence our narra- 
tive, although it is not in this direction that the mountains of Oisans are 
most easily approached. 



262 



EXCURSIONS IN DAUPHINE. 



of a very changeable season, accompanied us in our rambles 
amongst these mountains, quitted Allevard by the ravine 
just described, and followed the torrent of the Breda up 
towards its source, which has been termed in the patois of 
the country Les Sept Laux, or the Seven Lakes. Between 
the villages of Pingeau and La Ferriere, we noticed the 
remarkable occurrence of a polished convex surface of gray 
slaty rock, very similar to those occurring near the Han- 
deck and on the Grimsel. Unfamiliar though we at that 
time were with these supposed traces of glacier action, we 
could not help being struck by the perfect rotundity pre- 
sented by the exposed surfaces of the rock, exactly at such 
a contraction of the valley as must have exposed it to the 
shock of any descending mass. The polish too was ex- 
tremely perfect when we removed the covering of soil ; the 
hard and the soft parts being equally sawn across at an 
exact level, and smoothed with wonderful precision. It 
appears to me, upon recollection, as indubitably marked a 
specimen of this kind of action as is anywhere to be found 
in the Alps of Switzerland. It occurs at a very consider- 
able height above the bed of the torrent and close to the 
path, but we could trace it for a considerable way above 
and below, although it was only in this part of the valley 
that it attracted our attention. 

After passing an uncomfortable night at La Ferriere, 
we proceeded to ascend the col of the Seven Lakes. A 
long and steep ascent, generally, however, practicable for 
mules, led us to the first of the lakes in question after 
five hours' walk. This series of small and beautifully 
clear tarns lies in a prolonged ravine, which at a great 
height separates the chain commanding the valley of the 
I sere from the granitic mountains to the east. By our 



THE SEVEN LAKES— VALE OF ALLEMONT. 



263 



barometrical observations, the elevation of the col is 7144 
feet, yet these lakes are fed by springs, and are not like 
the usual accumulations of stagnant water derived from the 
melting snows. The temperature of the first lake was 
46°.5, whilst that of the river Breda, half a league above 
La Ferriere, at a height 4000 feet less, was only 46°, aris- 
ing, no doubt, from the glacier origin of the main branch 
of that stream, which at Princeau, below La Ferriere, had 
a temperature of 52°.5, at Allevard of 54°, and at Ponte 
Charra of 56°. Near the last of the chain of lakes is a 
small building where travellers might sleep better upon 
hay than in the wretched beds of La Ferriere. The situ- 
ation is wild and gloomy, commanding no distant views, 
the chain of lakes being closed in by bare peaks of no 
great elevation on all sides. 

After a long rest we proceeded to descend the southern 
side of the pass into the vale of Allemont, which termi- 
nates in that of the Eomanche below Bourg d'Oisans. 
This descent is excessively fatiguing, rapid, and even dan- 
gerous. In order to avoid the precipices, it is necessary to 
skirt the mountains at half their height by an intricate 
sheep track, with which our guide, it appears, was imper- 
fectly acquainted. After scrambling down a space of at 
least 3000 vertical feet, we reached in three hours the 
hamlet of Rivier d' Allemont. The gorge into which we 
descended was exceedingly striking and wild 5 cultivation 
dies away at the foot of the pass. On our left a difficult 
track called Le Maupas leads amongst lofty granite peaks 
into the valley of the Maurienne ; to the right and before 
us, the fantastic range of La Montagne de Belle Donne 
throws its jagged peaks to the sky. This summit doubtless 
receives its name from the obvious resemblance of the 



264 



EXCURSIONS IN DAUPHINE. 



outline to the rude representations of the Virgin and 
Child by the earliest masters of the Italian or the Byzan- 
tine school. 

Instead of stopping at Bivier, we resolved, in the hope 
of finding tolerable quarters, to push on to the village of 
Allemont, a distance of two hours and a half farther. 
As the evening advanced, we were fairly obliged to grope 
our way amidst intense darkness occasioned by the rich 
foliage which clothes with extraordinary luxuriance the 
lower part of this beautiful valley, whose fertility we found 
next morning to present as striking a contrast as can well 
be imagined to the rocky scenery of its immediate neigh- 
bourhood. Near Allemont, in the mountain of Challanche, 
mines of silver and lead have been worked since 1767, but 
have been more lately abandoned, and were for sale at 
the period of our journey. Our hopes of tolerable accom- 
modation were again disappointed, and after a walk of 
more than ten hours, we were doomed to pass another 
sleepless night. We next morning took mules, first to 
convey us to Bourg d'Oisans* through a flat country and 
along a good highway, from whence we proposed to explore 
the valley of St. Christophe, which I had visited two years 
before. 

The position of Bourg d'Oisans is sufficiently remark- 
able ; it lies in a swampy flat of a mile or more in width, 
out of which rise, especially on the west side, perpendicular 
walls of rock of immense elevation. On the face of these 
precipices the famous gold mines of La Gardette have been 
worked from an early period. It is impossible to doubt 
that this part of the valley of the Eomanche (in which the 

* Bourg d'Oisans, a country town 18 miles from Grenoble, by which 
the country to be described is most easily approached. 



BOUKG D'OISANS. 



265 



village of Bourg d'Oisansis situated) was once an enormous 
cleft, of a depth which it seems now almost impossible to 
estimate, of which we see the original walls still standing ; 
but the lower part has been filled up by the copious depo- 
sitions of mountain torrents and the degradation of moun- 
tains themselves, which have formed the enormous plat- 
form of detritus amongst which the river finds its way, 
leaving unhealthy swamps at every stage of its passage. 
Such artificial obstructions have even occurred during 
historic times. In the lower part of the course of the 
Eomanche, which bends suddenly at less than a right 
angle after being joined by the river of Allemont, it enters 
a profound defile called the Combe de Gavet, which I had 
visited on a former occasion, and in which a great lake was 
formed by the fall of a neighbouring mountain in the 11th 
century, which, after existing two hundred years, burst its 
barrier, and earned desolation into the valley of the Drac, 
and even to the town of Grenoble. These ravines, with 
perpendicular walls and zigzag courses, recall in a striking 
manner the scenery of Norway, especially of the Sogne- 
fiord, described in a previous part of this volume. Perhaps 
no other part of Europe presents so close a parallel ; and, 
as the neighbouring gneiss formation is extremely similar, 
it is not too much to infer that causes not very different 
have operated in the two cases to produce effects so grand 
in themselves, and indicating such astonishing energy in 
their production. 

The cliffs immediately behind Bourg d'Oisans are gene- 
rally of limestone, and rise perpendicularly to a height pro- 
bably much exceeding a thousand feet. From the base 
issue numerous fine springs, which appear to vary greatly 
in their discharge at different times, for some, which issued 



266 



EXCUESIONS IN DAUPHINE. 



nearly at the same season in 1839 in so great volume as to 
be impassable on foot, were now perfectly dry.* I observed, 
too, the great changes which the course of the torrent had 
made in its passage amongst the debris in which it has 
formed a thousand channels, and it had completely carried 
away the slight track which formerly led to the valley of 
St. Christophe. The height of Bourg d'Oisans is above 
2400 feet. A few miles higher up the valley we left 
behind us the narrow gorge through which the torrent 
of the Romanche passes to unite its waters with those of 
the Veneon.f Following the course of the Veneon on its 
left bank, we soon quitted the level plain, and began to 
rise alongside of the torrent which chafes itself amongst 
numberless scattered blocks to the little hamlet of Pont 
Ecofier, where a magnificent scene presented itself. Behind 
us we could still see the whole extent of the valley of 
Oisans confined by its mural precipices, terminated by the 
distant peaks of the Belle Donne, and seeming like a vast 
crevasse, of which the eye could not fathom the bottom. 
In front, two confined and savage valleys opened right and 
left — that on right, of no great extent, was soon closed 
to the eye by impassable walls of rock ; the other, from 
which the main mass of water descends, rushing at our feet 
beneath a frail bridge, presented a grand scene of rough 
mountains on either hand. In the extreme distance a gla- 
cier summit| raised itself in glorious perspective precisely 

* One of these springs, a little below Bourg d'Oisans, had a temperature 
of 48°.5 on the 11th of July 1839, the height being about 2400 feet. 

■J- Up that gorge a splendid new road has been carried, which, long 
ere this time probably, connects Grenoble with Brian<jon. 

] This summit appears to be "la pointe haute du grand glacier" in 
Bourcet's map. 



VALLEY OF ST. CHK1STOPHE— VENOS. 



267 



in the prolongation of the valley, richly coloured by the full 
beams of the setting sun; whilst in the middle distance 
there appeared a speck of exquisite verdure, placed as if by 
enchantment in the midst of a wilderness, marking the 
position of the little village of Venos, where live in inde- 
pendence, and even in wealth, the most considerable pro- 
prietors of this secluded and almost unknown valley. 

The fertility of the neighbourhood of Venos, which pro- 
duces so striking an effect, admits of a very simple expla- 
nation ; for here the granite suddenly ceases, and a tongue 
of limestone is intruded into its interior, connected with the 
great deposit near Mondelant in the valley of the Eomanche. 
The gentler forms of these strata are Avell marked, and a 
pass of easy access, and cultivated almost to the summit, 
forms the only practicable communication between these 
two valleys, and is composed entirely of lias. On the op- 
posite side of the Veneon the limestone strata are prolonged 
still farther into the heart of the granite, and the Col cle la 
Muselle which they form, is one of the least difficult in the 
interior of the group, connecting the valley of St. Chris- 
tophe with the Val Joufrei. The structure of the limestone 
is extremely remarkable, being completely metamorphosed 
by the neighbourhood of the granite, so as to present the 
appearance of a very beautiful black roofing slate, of which 
it possesses all the most valuable characters. This is a 
striking example of the production of cleavage planes by 
metainorphic action. 

The village of Venos is situated on an elevated slope, 
clothed with rich walnut woods on the right bank of the 
stream. It is commanded by the church, a building of 
Romanesque architecture, from which a good view of the 
valley is obtained. The green pastures which lead to the 



268 



EXCURSIONS IN DAUPHINE. 



Col de la Muselle are exactly opposite, and the contact of 
the granite with the lias at a great height may be distinctly 
perceived. The torrent which flows through it descends 
into the valley of the Veneon by a striking cascade, present- 
ing a great volume of water at the season of the melting of 
the glaciers. It may be remarked of almost all the tribu- 
tary valleys of this neighbourhood, that they do not join 
the principal valley at a common level, but are consider- 
ably higher, so that a waterfall, often of great beauty, 
almost invariably accompanies the meeting of the streams, 
thus presenting a fresh analogy with the configuration of 
Norway. The lateral valleys therefore cannot be properly 
considered as fissures, since their section is rounded, and a 
steep water-course has been cut since their formation, by 
the action of water in the lapse of ages. Venos is not only 
the prettiest village in the district of Oisans, but it also 
boasts a very good country inn, which we may be excused 
for mentioning amongst the peculiarities of the place. 

In ascending the valley of St. Christophe, the gorge 
soon becomes narrower, the rounded forms characterizing 
the intruded lias are quickly left, and, the torrent having 
been passed on a substantial bridge, a very short distance 
brings us to a scene of sublime desolation. A mountain 
on the right hand has, at some remote time, crumbled into 
fragments, and literally filled the valley from side to side 
with a colossal heap of ruins. Through and amongst these 
winds a narrow path practicable for mules, whilst the river 
dashes from rock to rock with excessive commotion, some- 
times passing under the fragments which it was unable to 
displace. One huge slab of granite, wide enough for three 
carriages to pass abreast, forms a natural and ponderous 
bridge, harmonizing with the desolation of the scene. The 



VILLAGE OF ST. CHEISTOPHE. 



269 



effect of this natural barrier has evidently been, as in 
the Combe de Gavet, to form a temporary lake, which 
has since been silted up, leaving a level plain which 
extends for a mile or two. On the right stands the 
romantic village of Enchatra, a hamlet consisting of a 
few houses perched on a projecting rock in a tributary 
valley above one of the beautiful cascades already men- 
tioned. 

Not much farther on, the road leaves the stream and 
leads up the face of a rough hill to the village of St. 
Christophe, which gives its name to the valley. On this 
ascent several fine springs issue from the gneiss (which is 
here in vertical strata directed due north and south), at a 
height of about 250 feet below the village, or 4550 feet 
above the sea, the temperature of these, July 10th, 1839, 
was 44°.0, and July 24th, 1841, 43°.8. Just before reach- 
ing St. Christophe, a bridge crosses a very wild and narrow 
cleft, through which foams a wild glacier stream called 
Torrent du Diable. We addressed ourselves to the Cure 
for information as to guides who could conduct us across 
some of the passes at the head of the valley. He received 
us with great cordiality, and gave us references to two, 
both chamois hunters, living at the village of La Berarde, 
the last hamlet of the district, and to which distance his 
wild parish extended. We could, however, obtain but 
slender information as to the practicability of any of the 
passes connecting La Berarde with the adjacent valleys. 
Encouraged, however, by what we heard, we proceeded 
to ascend the course of the stream. Only two other vil- 
lages exist higher up. The first, Les Etages, commands 
one of the finest Alpine views which the admirers of Swiss 
scenery can desire, terminated by the Montagne d'Our- 



270 



EXCUESIONS IN DAUPHINE. 



sine, which stands immediately above the hamlet of La 
Berarde. It presents a series of rocky pinnacles in mani- 
fold rows, between which the snow can scarcely adhere ; 
and so utterly inaccessible does that chain appear, that any 
passage in this quarter to the Val Louise seems almost 
hopeless ; in fact it is stated never to have been accom- 
plished, except by a deserter, who having escaped many 
years ago from the fortress of Briancon, sought shelter 
in the unapproached fastnesses of the Montagne d'Oursine. 
Its form, as seen from Les Etages, especially by the morn- 
ing light (imperfectly represented in Plate IX.), is compar- 
able to the Aiguilles of Mont Blanc, and the valley which 
stretches beyond it to the foot of Mont Pelvoux may almost 
rival the scenery of the Allee Blanche. 

La Berarde, which is placed in the midst of this savage 
landscape, consists of but very few and poor houses, with 
a small chapel distinguished from the rest by a belfry. 
Cultivation ceases just at the village ; a few stunted pines 
are found still higher up, but there is no wood worth men- 
tioning in the valley above Venos. Timber for building is 
all brought from Bourg d'Oisans. This excessive sterility 
peculiarly characterises the valleys of Dauphine\ The 
village of La Berarde is at a height of only 5500 feet, 
that of St. Christophe is 4800, and of Venos 3230, but the 
character of the scenery is like that of Switzerland at a 
greater elevation. The unbroken rocky surfaces deceive 
the eye to such an extent that it is difficult to realize the 
enormous scale of these mountains. " We seek in vain," 
says Mr. E. de Beaumont, " those landscapes, at once 
grand and graceful, which are so attractive at Grindelwald 
and Chamouni ; the bottom of the valleys is too elevated 
for luxuriant vegetation. The scanty pasturage soon gives 



SCENERY AT LA BERARDE. 



271 



place to snow or bare rock, and some poplars and strag- 
gling ash trees are alone found in the valley of La Ber- 
arde ; the snows and glaciers are their only decoration, and 
it is even difficult to attain positions at a sufficient distance 
to enjoy a good view of them. Lower, no doubt, than 
Mont Blanc and the Jungfrau, the mountains of Oisans 
appear less elevated than they are, on account of the abso- 
lute height of the valleys and of their confined position, so 
that the summits can be but rarely seen. To ascertain their 
height, we must attempt to mount them, and even then the 
eye has some difficulty to submit to the testimony of the 
limbs." 

Scanty as the pasturages appear, they are in great re- 
quest amongst the shepherds of Provence, who annually 
drive thousands of sheep from the plains of La Crau and 
the delta of the Rhone — a long journey of several weeks — 
to spend a month or two at the base of Mont Pelvoux. In 
1839, I saw a herd of young mules gamboling at the foot 
even of the glaciers. The inhabitants of La Berarde re- 
ceived me on both my visits with surprise, but with kind- 
ness and hospitality. Their dwellings are very low, mean, 
and dirty. The sight of a stranger is a rare event. In 
1839 on the 10th of July, I was the first visitor of the 
season. On that occasion, hastening late one evening, on 
foot and quite alone, in search of the village of St. Chris- 
tophe, where I was to sleep, I met a man of whom I asked 
the way. He looked at me rather suspiciously, and then 
with much simplicity expressed a hope that I had not been 
guilty of any criminal action which had caused me to take 
refuge in these valleys. Like most unsophisticated moun- 
taineers, the feeling of the picturesque is unknown. A 
country is a " mauvais pays " in proportion as it is ele- 



272 



EXCURSIONS IN DAUPHINE. 



vated, and the curious traveller runs some risk of being 
taken for a treasure hunter if he carry a hammer, and in 
any other case, a refugee from justice. But notwithstand- 
ing this isolation, I was struck with a certain courtesy of 
manners and especially a purity of dialect, which seemed 
surprising. But I afterwards learned that there is scarcely 
a man in the whole valley who has not been more or less 
a traveller*, and, indeed, that during the seven or eight 
months of every year, which may truly be said to consti- 
tute their winter, the whole male inhabitants, almost to a 
man, quit their homes, and range over every part of France 
as hawkers or col-porteurs — their usual occupation being 
vending live plants and flowers. They return in the late 
spring with commodities necessary for their consumption, 
and which their valley is incapable of producing ; and in 
this way, as I have already said, a great deal of real com- 
fort and independence is to be found among the inhabitants 
of Venos and St. Christophe, with a hardihood of character, 
which reminds one more of the aristocratic peasantry of the 
Swiss republics than that of France generally. 

We found Joseph Eodier, the guide to whom we had 
been recommended, busily engaged in securing his hay 
crop, which he and his son were carrying in heavy bundles 
on their backs from the field to the hay-loft. Finding that 
no one in the village had ever crossed to the Val Louise, 
and that the practicability of such a feat was altogether 
doubtful, we enquired whether, by leaving Mont Pelvoux 
on the left, we could pass by the extreme head of the val- 
ley to the Val Godemar. Eodier had twice performed this, 
and engaged to conduct us across the glacier which lay in 
the way next morning. It turned out, however, that the 
route which we wished to take, and ultimately took, 



LA BERARDE. 



273 



across the Col de Sais, had, so far as we could learn, 
been traversed by no one in the valley. We spent the after- 
noon in inspecting the neighbourhood, and received the 
most hospitable kindness from the family of Richard, to 
whom we had been recommended by the cure of St. Chris- 
tophe. To sleep in the house was (fortunately) impossible ; 
a truss of clean straw was prepared in the hay-loft, and 
some of its numerous apertures were closed for the occasion. 
We had brought coverlets as well as provisions from Venos. 
All our property was most carefully and considerately put 
under lock and key ; and, though our instruments and equip- 
ments furnished food for the curiosity of all the children, 
and many of the grown inhabitants of the village, we expe- 
rienced not the slightest rudeness or attempt at imposition. 
We hung our barometer at the door of the very same cot- 
tage (Richard's), at which I had done the same two years 
before ; and though the observations, owing to the distance 
of the station (Marseilles), with which they are compared, 
do not very closely agree (and even the morning and evening 
observation give a considerable difference due to tempera- 
ture), the height of this interesting station may be approxi- 
mately given at 5550 feet above the Mediterranean. 



T 



MONT PELVOUX FROM THE VAL LOUISE. 



CHAPTER II. 



CROSS THE COL DE SAIS, EXCEEDING 10,000 FEET — GLACIER DE LA CON DAMIN A— DESCENT 
TO LA CHAPELLE — PASSAGE OF THE COL DE CELAR — GLACIER AND DANGEROUS PRE- 
CIPICES— ENTRAIGUES — VILLE DE VAL LOUISE— MONT PELVOUX— MONESTIER-COL DE 
LAUTARET— SUPERPOSITION OF GNEISS TO LIAS — LA GRAVE — THE SCENERY— COMBE 
DE M A LAVAL PASSAGE OF THE COL DE INTERNETS — REMARKS ON THE GEOLOGY OF 
THE MONTAGNES DE L'OISANS. 

The weather next morning was very favourable, and, impa- 
tient to avail ourselves of it, we were up before four o'clock ; 
but our haste was in vain, for the guide did not make his 



DEPARTURE FROM LA BERARDE. 





275 



appearance, nor was it, until past six, that by our united 
exertions we could accomplish the fulfilment of his many 
preparations, which his wife (who appeared to have given 
but a reluctant consent to the journey) by no means accele- 
rated. No one had for years attempted the passage, nor does 
any stranger appear to have crossed from the valley of St. 
Christophe to the Val Godemar. Our guide from Venos 
(who was to return with the mule which had brought our 
provisions and knapsack), a kind-hearted man, who now 
visited for the first time this part of the valley, declared it 
was " le bout du monde," and entreated us not to think of 
going farther. But seeing that we were not to be moved in 
our resolution, Rodier at last completed his breakfast of 
boiled chamois — filled his spirit-flask, took leave of his wife 
and the other villagers who collected to see us off, and we 
addressed ourselves to our journey. 

For two hours above La Berarde the ascent is not rapid. 
Opposite the valley of La Pirade, the most considerable 
ravine which descends from the Montagne d'Oursine on the 
left, the valley divides into two branches, both extremely 
grand. By either we understood that the Val Godemar 
might be reached ; but we were not then aware that our 
guide had passed only by the one to the right. We prefer- 
red the other, which kept close by the foot of Mont Pel- 
voux, whence we were to cross by the Glacier de la Conda- 
mina and the Col de Sais. Rodier, who was an excellent 
mountaineer and a trusty guide, though he had never passed 
this way, had satisfied himself on his previous journey, as 
he afterwards told us, that if the top of the Col de Sais 
could be gained on the side of La Berarde, the descent 
would be practicable on the other. Leaving then the 
valley of Clos Chatel (in Bourcet's map) to the right, we 



276 



EXCUESIONS IN DAUPHINli. 



ascended the Valine de Compte Faviel, and reached the foot 
of the glacier in two hours from La Berarde. We passed a 
stone cabin, in which slept a Provencal shepherd. The 
glacier at first was not steep ; our course lay nearly due 
south, and when we had passed opposite to the highest 
summit of Mont Pelvoux, we turned more to the right, 
where the glacier divides into two branches. The fallen 
rocks had hitherto been true granites, consistently with the 
views of De Beaumont, but now they passed into epidote 
rocks, and others composed of felspar and hornblende, per- 
haps analogous to the variolites of the Drac. These gave 
place, as we ascended a very steep bank of debris, to more 
slaty forms ; and the Col de Sais is composed of an inter- 
mixture of the preceding rocks with those in which talc 
forms a prominent ingredient, a mineral which appears to 
characterize a district of this group, lying in a north and 
south direction, passing through La Berarde, and coming 
out near the Col de Lautaret. I speak only in a very 
approximative manner ; but the rocks on the north side, 
between the Lautaret and Monestier, have the same cha- 
racter. 

Having reached a considerable elevation by climbing 
on the shingle, we dined (without, however, the advantage 
of water), and descended upon the higher part of the glacier 
by a moderately inclined snowy slope intersected by occa- 
sional crevasses. Our more direct course would have led 
us to cross this arm of the glacier near its base, and to have 
ascended the opposite side ; but this Eodier justly consi- 
dered imprudent on account of the recent traces of ava- 
lanches. But though we were now nearly on a level, or at 
least not greatly below the Col de Sais, we had still an 
anxious passage to make across an extensive glacier basin, 



VIEW FROM THE COL DE SAIS. 



277 



which, was traversed by impassable rents in various direc- 
tions, nor was it practicable to ascertain from a distance 
whether these could be got round or not. At length, 
having descended considerably, all difficulties were over- 
come, and a gentle snow slope led up to the summit of the 
pass. The barometer stood at 19 in. 4 lines French, and 
the thermometer at 34° of Fahrenheit. The height we 
computed to be 10,224 English feet.* This we gained at 
one o'clock. Notwithstanding the cold and an approach- 
ing snow-shower, I made a careful survey from this mag- 
nificent station of the country we had just left, and took a 
sketch of the outline of Mont Pelvoux and the neighbouring 
chain, in which the Montagne d'Oursine stands out with its 
double head in great prominence. The view commenced 
at the Aiguille du Midi de la Grave on the left, to the right 
of which is a practicable but rarely traversed path from La 
Berarde to Villard d'Arene ; next the Montagne d'Oursine, 
with a most precipitous abutment to the south-east. This 
is followed by the Pointe de Verges — a peculiarly pointed 
summit marked by Mr. Elie de Beaumont in his ideal sec- 
tion as the centre towards which all the upraised gneiss 
strata seem to point. I cannot say that the extensive and 
commanding view I now enjoyed altogether confirmed this 
opinion. There are undoubtedly points of view presenting 
a section of the mountains of Oisans from E. to W. which 
seem to indicate something like an anticlinal axis running 
N. and S. ; but, from the Col de Sais, the mountains within 
view have a singularly rough and formless appearance. 
There is a gap between the Pointe de Verges and the Mont 
Pelvoux, and through this gap it is possible that a passage 

* It is called 3358 metres, or 11,017 English feet, on the authority of 
De Zach in Brugiere's Orographic de V Europe. 



278 



EXCURSIONS IN DAUPHINE. 



into the Val Louise might be attempted; beyond and 
through it appear (as I judge by the direction on the map) 
the distant peaks of the Mont des Agniaux. There rose 
just opposite to us, and to a height of more than 3000 feet 
above us, the pyramidal summit of the Mont Pelvoux itself, 
which predominates over the whole. 

As we reached the Col de Sais, a cold sleet shower 
passed over us, and the sky became overcast. Fortunately 
it was not violent or continued, for we looked with some 
anxiety to the descent, which our guide had never traversed. 
The view to the south-west carried the eye into the Val 
Godemar at a profound depth (nearly 7000 feet) below us. 
The prospect of the descent was sufficiently fatiguing, if not 
dangerous, for, as we attained the summit, we looked over 
what appeared a precipice perhaps 3000 feet high, composed 
of rock intermixed with snow-beds of extreme steepness. 
There was, however, no alternative, and we boldly faced 
the abyss. Our intelligent guide, avoiding the inclines of 
snow,° led us down the least difficult parts of the precipice 
of rock with skill and address. The rock was still com- 
posed of a mixture of steatitic gneiss, with a variolite com- 
posed of felspar and augite, which occurs in large grained 
patches. The footing was often by no means firm, the 
rock decomposing into angular fragments •, but the last 
part we accomplished easily and agreeably by allowing 
ourselves to slide down a moderately steep declivity of 
snow until we reached the pastures, when, looking back to 
the precipice we had passed, it seemed very nearly inacces- 
sible, in the ordinary sense of the word. Near the bottom 
we saw a chamois. Our progress was now easy and rapid. 

* A narrow one, but of formidable steepness, and softened by the warmth 
of the day, we were, liowcver, compelled lo cross. 



SCENE AT LA CHAPELLE. 



279 



Each chose his own path, and we ran gaily over the very 
steep pastures which form the upper part of the wholly un- 
inhabited Val de Gioubernez. At the junction of this val- 
ley with the main one of Godemar is a fine cascade, buried 
so deep in a ravine that it can with difficulty be seen ; and 
a little below is the hamlet of Le Clos, where it might be 
possible to sleep 5 but we preferred walking two hours 
farther down the valley to the first commune, that of La 
Chapelle, where we arrived about 7 p.m. 

The arrival of strangers at La Chapelle is at all times 
a subject of surprise, but when they came from the glacier- 
bound head of the valley, it was a matter of curiosity to 
the whole inhabitants of the village, a majority of whom 
appeared to be more or less under the influence of wine 
(being a fete day) ; and, as we were driven from door to 
door by the hope of finding a decent lodging, we were fol- 
lowed by crowds of curious speculators. The mayor of the 
village was seated in the crowded room of the filthy cabaret, 
which formed the only pretence of an inn. A glance at 
the beds satisfied us that it was impossible to sleep there, 
and having submitted with calmness to the drunken ex- 
postulations of the man of office on the illegality of the 
spiked alpine poles which we carried, we at last, after much 
delay, found shelter with the cure, whose timely hospitality 
we have good reason to remember. Clean beds and a 
hospitable meal were offered to us with simplicity and kind- 
ness, and we were invited to stay all next day, an offer of 
importance, for we had another long and difficult alpine 
walk before us, and desired some repose. 

A short excursion into the valley of Navette gave us 
some farther insight into the singular character of this part 
of Dauphine\ When we had descended to La Chapelle, of 



280 



EXCURSIONS IN DAUPHINE. 



which the elevation is 3525 feet, we supposed that the Val 
Godeniar was one which offered easy communication with the 
neighbouring valleys; but this is far from being the case. Its 
lateral branches, like La Navette, are sealed with glaciers, 
and it is an arduous day's journey to escape on either hand 
from the single narrow channel which the stream of the Val 
Godemar (called La Severaisse) flows to join the Drac. By 
La Navette is a pass leading to Champoleon, a point of 
geological interest, on account of the displaced and altered 
limestones, but it is so lofty as to be covered with per- 
petual snow. My desire to visit Champoleon did not equal 
that to explore more completely the environs of the Mont 
Pelvoux, and to intersect again the heart of the chain by 
passing from La Chapelle to Val Louise, whence we pro- 
posed, by the circuitous route of Fressiniere to reach 
Champoleon, and to return to La Chapelle by the Col de 
la Meande. 

In the neighbourhood of La Navette, in the ravine 
called the Combe d'Ourcette, the same limestone occurs, 
which at Champoleon and other places in this neighbour- 
hood, breaks into the granitic nucleus. This is very well 
marked in the geological map of France ; but the authors 
of it do not appear to have been aware that a stripe of 
limestone, composed of highly inclined strata and of con- 
siderable extent, crosses the upper part of the Val Gode- 
mar in a N.N.W. and S.S.E. direction, and communicates, 
in all probability, with the valley of Champoleon on the 
one hand, whilst it stretches away into the Val Joufrei on 
the other. Fragments of the epidote rocks are extremely 

* This is also the direction of the gneiss strata. This band of lime- 
stone crosses the Val Godemar at the village of Eion du Sap. The lime- 
stone communicates apparently with that of La Navette. 



ASCENT OF THE COL DE CELAR. 



281 



abundant near La Navette, and I observed an amydaloid, 
which I afterwards noticed at Monestier, near Briancon, but 
which I have not found in situ. 

The following day we prepared to start from La Cha- 
pelle to cross into the Val Louise by the southern branch 
of the chain of Mont Pelvoux. Our intention was nearly 
frustrated by the suspicious activity of the police. A ru- 
mour of the arrival of strangers armed with iron-shod poles 
across the glaciers had reached the town of St. Firmin at 
the foot of the valley ; and the gens-d'armes arrived just 
in time to intercept our departure, which had been retarded 
by the morning mists. Seizing upon an irregularity in my 
friend's passport, they had almost detained us, but the let- 
ters with which I had been kindly furnished by Mr. Arago 
procured our liberation, and we started to ascend the Col 
de Celar at a later hour than we should willingly have 
done had we been aware of the difficulties which awaited us. 

We had to retrace our former steps to the highest ham- 
let of the Val Godemar, named Le Clos, consisting of but 
a few scattered houses, after which cultivation ceases, and 
we laboriously ascended the steep but rich pastures which 
intervene between the valley and the glacier, which as 
usual descends from the col. After two and a half hours 
of ascent, and four and a half hours from La Chapelle, the 
glacier was gained. The latter part of the way was ex- 
tremely rough over the loose moraine. At this great eleva- 
tion I gathered a specimen of metamorphic limestone, of 
which doubtless some imbedded fragments are to be found 
in this central and very elevated range. The limestone 
had a bluish colour, and was accompanied by a portion of 
red schist almost converted into porcelain jasper. It is 
probable that their position and relations would be very 



282 



EXCURSIONS IN DAUPHINE. 



interesting if discovered ; for here we are upon the verge 
of the true granitic nucleus, and we quit for a time -the 
strata of gneiss. The scenery during the ascent is very 
grand. The stupendous mountain, marked Garroux on 
Bourcet's map, with a talus of bare rock as steep as a house 
roof, broken here and there into pinnacles, and powdered 
with the fresh snow of the past night, rose majestically on 
our right. At length we entered upon the snow, and after 
crossing a considerable tract, came to the first rocky step 
or stage, over whose centre a glacier pours its torpid mass, 
taking its origin in the mountain basin above, at the foot of 
the col. This barrier of rock was gained easily, but the 
access to the col promised greater impediments. The un- 
usual quantity of snow of last winter had prevented all 
access to the second tier of rocks, except by crossing its 
steep inclined surface, which was of great extent, and being 
at this advanced time of day completely softened, pre- 
sented a kind of walking which, though not difficult in 
itself, required the utmost precaution, since an ill placed 
step would infallibly have launched the traveller on the 
soft snowy slide — a circumstance which had occurred but a 
little before to one of the party, when it was only a matter 
of amusement, since no greater danger than a fracture of 
the barometer was to be apprehended, whilst at present, 
unless by great address in the use of the pole, the victim of 
a false step must have slid down a snowy bank of some 
hundred feet, and landed amongst glacier precipices at the 
bottom. For a whole hour we had to pick our steps along 
this disagreeable slope, and gently mounting, at last reached 
the foot of the final precipice which conducted us to the 
col. It was soon climbed ; when a scene not less striking 
in its Avay than that from the Col de Sais presented itself. 



VIEW FROM THE COL DE CELAE 



283 



The col was a mere ridge of angularly shattered granite, 
rising on both sides into fantastic forms of singular wild- 
ness of outline. Before and behind us were glacier basins, 
the one of which poured its tribute into the Vallon des 
Bancs (a tributary of the Val Louise), the other into the 
Val Godemar. We stood suspended above both, with the 
intervention of a rocky precipice, so that our position 
resembled a gigantic wall of masonry, battered by time 
and the elements into irregular embrasures, and to which 
the snow could scarcely cling. The barometer stood at 
19 French inches 6 lines T V; the temperature of the air 
was about 36°. Consequently, the height was nearly as 
great as that of the Col de Sais, and proved to be 10,073 
English feet. 

We had ascended above 6500 feet, and had nearly 
an equal descent before us, which evidently was not un- 
attended with difficulty, for beyond the glacier basin im- 
mediately before us the eye in vain sought for a slope to 
guide it into the seemingly unfathomable depth of the val- 
ley beneath ; in truth, the glacier is guarded by precipices 
on every side. A great rent separated the snow from the 
rock : this was our first difficulty, but soon overcome. 
We had little time to waste, for we had spent eight 
hours in climbing the col. The glacier basin was 
crossed without any of the difficulties we had experienced 
in ascending; but we soon reached the rocky chasm 
which separated us from the habitable world beneath. 
Our guide, who had already passed this way several 
times, led on with confidence and skill ; but it required 
all our assurance to follow him down the almost per- 
pendicular cliff, exposed and convex, without any of 
those narrow crevices into which a man can, with a little 



284 



EXCURSIONS IN DAUPHINE. 



practice, squeeze his body, and let himself gently down. 
This was a work of clinging from step to step ; and though 
our guide manifested much patience for our slow move- 
ments, he had none of the adroit usefulness of the Swiss 
guides, whose familiar acquaintance with travellers enables 
them to assist in a thousand ways, and many of whom have 
often risked their own lives to save that of their employers. 
The chamois hunter of Dauphine feels (not unnaturally) no 
such bond between him and the traveller whom he con- 
ducts, and will often scarcely take the trouble of making a 
circuit however trifling, to avoid a pass which would make 
the hair of a common tourist to stand on end. Here, how- 
ever, there really was no escape. Precipices surrounded us 
on all hands, unless where they were masked by vertical 
walls of ice, or snow beds of impracticable inclination. 
To turn back was out of the question. Evening approached, 
and the col was not yet far behind us. Who would stand 
upon trifles at such a moment ? 

In the course of this descent, I was not inattentive to 
the nature of the rocks by which we were compelled conti- 
nually to cling, and was particularly struck by the occur- 
rence of thin green veins or dykes cutting the granite-dykes, 
which at the time I took for serpentine, but a more careful 
inspection shows to be green felspar. These are doubtless 
of the same nature with the dykes of felspar described by 
Mr. Elie de Beaumont on the Col de la Pisse, between St. 
Christophe and the Val Joufrei. One of the dykes on the 
Col de Celar exhibited a shift or dislocation. Having 
reached in safety the foot of a precipice several hundred 
feet high, we found ourselves on the level of the glacier, 
and thought that our descent would now be accomplished 
on its surface ; but from this the guide entirely dissuaded 



VILLE DE VAL LOUISE. 



285 



us. Fresh traces of avalanches were everywhere strewed 
on the steep surface over which we must have passed. 
Before us rose a buttress of rock, by the foot of which the 
glacier swept, and which, therefore, it was impossible to 
turn. There was no alternative but to climb over it. A 
new cliff was to be scaled, then a longer precipice was to be 
descended by ledges of scarce a handsbreadth ; but this 
being accomplished, we found ourselves on a moderately 
inclined slope of snow, which, owing to the very unusual 
extent which it had this season attained, stretched into the 
valley for a distance of nearly two miles, along which we 
slid and ran at ease ; and, as we approached the first habi- 
tations of the Val Louise — the wretched hovels of En- 
traigues — the evening had already fallen, and we looked 
back almost with awe to the rugged heights from which we 
had just descended, flanked by glaciers and rocks which 
appeared equally inaccessible. 

Entraigues (as its name imports) is placed at the union 
of two streams, of which that on the right descends from 
the Vallou de Beauvoisin, which offers a circuitous but less 
difficult communication with the Val Godemar which we 
had just quitted. To remain at Entraigues was out of the 
question, so we pushed on in the dark for fully two hours 
farther, to gain the chef lieu of the valley, the poor village 
which goes by the imposing name of the Vitle de Val Louise. 
We soon found ourselves amongst wood ; and, even in the 
twilight, we could see that the stern features of the granitic 
mountains had yielded to the gentler character of the lime- 
stone hills, which commence an hour above La Ville. 
These hills are studded with villages and church spires, 
their tops clothed by the warm green pine woods, their 



286 



EXCURSIONS IN DAUPHINE. 



flanks covered with fresh pasturage, and the well watered 
valleys rearing stately walnut and other trees, present a 
scene more verdant and engaging than our eyes had rested 
upon since quitting Allemont ; for even Venos, beautiful as 
it is, and owing its beauty to the same cause — the lime- 
stone formation — is but a gem set in a massive frame- 
work of granite peaks on every hand. 

Little of this, however, we saw till next morning. All 
was dark long before we arrived at the Ville de Val Louise ; 
and we wandered disconsolately about its deserted streets, 
composed of great barns more than of houses, with those 
vast projecting roofs and verandahs which characterise this 
part of the French Alps, under which in unfavourable sea- 
sons the poor inhabitants strive to preserve from total 
destruction the crops which have not had time to ripen on 
the stalk ere the autumnal frosts have seized upon them. 
At length we got a direction to the house of the Cure\ the 
traveller's best resort in Dauphin e\ where we were hospi- 
tably received, and lodged better than we had any reason 
to expect. 

The position of this village is remarkable. It lies near 
the union of the valley of Entraigues, which we had 
descended with the principal branch of the Val Louise 
itself, called l'Alefred, which stretches up quite to the foot 
of the monarch of the group, the Grand Pelvoux itself, 
which, though at no ' great distance, cannot be seen from 
the " ville " on account of the hill which rises immediately 
behind. It is from this side that the ascent of the Mont 
Pelvoux has been attempted; and it appears that the 
French engineers succeeded in attaining a summit but little 
inferior to the very highest point which has acquired the 



THE GRAND PELVOUX. 



287 



peculiar name of Pointe des Arcines or des Ecrins.9 It is, as 
we have said, estimated by the French engineers to be 4105 
metres, or 13,468 English feet above the sea, by Carliniand 
Plana 4100 metres, and by Von Welden and the Austrian 
engineersf 12,612 French or 13,442 English feet. It is, 
therefore, the highest mountain between Mont Blanc and 
the Mediterranean, Mont Iseran being 4045 metres (Cora- 
boeuf), and Monte Viso being only 3836 metres — a height 
surpassed by several of the mountains of Dauphine. 

The Val Louise is, as I have observed, very fertile in its 
lower part ; and, when we descend a few miles below the 
town, the Mont Pelvoux is seen to rise with almost architec- 
tural solidity and boldness, the prominences of the granitic 
tables giving an effect, now of buttresses and now of pin- 
nacles, which is exceedingly grand.| Below the pretty vil- 
lage of Vigneaux, the valley contracts by the approach of the 
limestone rocks, and then opens rather abruptly on the val- 
ley of the Durance. We shall not detail the features of the 
country farther in this direction, because we soon quit the 
prescribed limit of the district we have to consider, but shall 
conclude with a short description of the north-western 
boundary of these mountains. 

The proper group of Oisans is bounded in this direction 
by the valley of Monestier, by which the stream of La 
Guisanne flows to join the Durance a little way below 
Briangon. It takes its rise at the Col de Lautaret, the 
mere watershed of the two extremities of one and the 
same valley, which terminates in a north-easterly direction 
in the deep gorge of the Combe de Malaval formerly 

* De Beaumont, Memoire, p. 19. f Der Monte Kosa, p. 30. 

% See the vignette at the head of this chapter. 



288 



EXCURSIONS IN DAUPHINE. 



alluded to. This great valley, in its whole extent, occupies 
nearly the boundary of the granite and lias, the limestone 
of the upper part of the Val Louise being, according to M. 
Elie de Beaumont, " nummulite " limestone or chalk. At 
Monestier, about six miles above the valley of the Durance, 
the glaciers appear on the left descending from the group 
of the Montagne des Agniaux, which, according to the same 
author, are composed of gneiss strata so regularly disposed 
as to be easily mistaken for limestone at a distance, dipping 
to the N.E. The strata of this part of the range appear to 
be very close in their nature, and resemble those of the Col 
de Sais. A gentle ascent leads to the summit of the Col de 
Lautaret, which is covered with verdure to the very top ; 
and even the neighbouring mountains are clothed to a great 
height with pasturages of the utmost luxuriance, filled with 
a greater and more gorgeous variety of flowers than I re- 
collect to have seen in any other part of the Alps. The 
height of the col is 6740 feet, and from it a view of won- 
derful grandeur is obtained down the gorge of Malaval, 
and especially towards the Pic du Midi de La Grave, rising 
to a height of above 13,000 feet, fancifully compared by M. 
Elie de Beaumont to a gigantic nut-cracker menacing hea- 
ven with its open jaws. Immediately to the south of the 
Col de Lautaret is a very remarkable mountain which pre- 
sents a section of granite and limestone which has not been, 
I believe, described, and which does not yield in interest, or 
in evidence of inverted superposition, to that at Villard 
d' Areine, so ably described in the memoir just cited. 

Immediately above the village called Pied de Lautaret 
two streams unite, whose courses are separated by a hill not 
named in Bourcet's map, but descending from the Point de 
Combeiron, whose sides, parallel to each ravine, form a 



8UPEEP0BITI0N OP GRANITE TO LIAS. 



289 



horizontal angle varying from 60° to 90°. When this pro- 
montory is viewed in front it is evident that the superior 
part is composed of granite or gneiss, and that the base of 
the whole hill is limestone. This I had noticed in a general 
way in 1839, but in 1841 1 quitted the road at the Col de 
Lautaret, and after ascending above a thousand feet, I 
reached the junction of the two rocks, where the limestone 
dips under the gneiss at an angle of from 65° to 70°. Both 
rocks were very materially altered at contact, but within a 
few feet of each other were perfectly well characterised. 
A similar section was obtained at each side of the hill ; the 
limestone dipping under the gneiss both ways, so as to leave 
not a moment's doubt that we have here a cap of primitive 
rock overlying the secondary rocks, just as we so often see 
in the case of basaltic summits resting upon stratified bases. 
The view of the junction from Villard d'Areine (a village 
below the Pied de Lautaret) leaves nothing to be desired, 
after the nature of the rocks has been ascertained by actual 
inspection. 

A great road, leading from Grenoble to Briangon, was 
being conducted, at the time of our visit, across the Col de 
Lautaret. Already great difficulties had been overcome. 
When completed, it will vie in the wildness of the scenery 
through which it leads with almost any of the Alpine passes. 
The descent from Villard d'Areine to La Grave is steep, and 
the nature of the rock (a crumbling black calcareous slate) 
opposes peculiar difficulties to the engineer. A striking 
cascade is passed, the whole grandeur of the glacier of La 
Grave is spread out before the traveller as the path winds 
through the narrow street of La Grave, and then plunges 
steeply into the ravine of Malaval. This remarkable chasm, 
the result of some awful convulsion, runs nearly east and 

u 



290 



EXCUKSIONS IN DAUPHINE. 



west, and is bounded on either hand by a wall of rock so 
steep as effectually to conceal the vast ice-fields by which 
(on the south side) it is surmounted. The fallen masses of 
rock which strew the valley equal in magnitude those be- 
tween Venos and St. Christophe, whilst the almost mono- 
tonous straightness and uniformity in breadth of the defile, 
and the towering walls which shelter it even from the mid- 
day sun, give the ravine a character of sombre wildness, 
which the almost total absence not only of wood, but of 
verdure for many miles, serves to increase. The great pub- 
lic work, the formation of the new road, has taken some- 
thing from the solitude of the scene, and yet the scale is 
so great that the eye may almost overlook the tunnels and 
embankments which have cost years of labour. 

At La Grave we enter again upon the granitic formation, 
which here, near its junction with the sedimentary rocks, is, 
as usual, metalliferous. The galleries from which the copper 
ore is extracted open in the face of naked cliffs in spots 
apparently inaccessible to all but birds ; yet up these cliffs 
are carried wooden tubes through which the broken ore is 
allowed to slide down to be smelted at the works beneath. 
It is in these mines that the crystals, for which Dauphine" 
is so celebrated amongst mineralogists, are commonly 
found. 

This defile, with slight variation of direction, extends 
as far as the valley of the Veneon, which, as already men- 
tioned, it joins at a short distance from Bourg d'Oisans, 
which is about 18 English miles from La Grave, or 36 from 
Monestier. 

The valley of the Eomanche just described is separated 
from the valley of the Arc and the district of the Mau- 
rienne by the lofty range of mountains of which the cul- 



GRANDES EOUSSES— LA GRAVE. 



291 



initiating mass is that of the Grandes Rousses, already 
adverted to. This savage mountain rises to a height of 
11,900 feet above the sea. It is consequently covered by 
perpetual snow, and the distance of every part of it from 
inhabited valleys must have rendered its geological de- 
scription by M. Dausse a task of no small labour. The 
most prolonged chain connected with it stretches in an 
easterly direction towards Briancon, and presents numerous 
passes, all of considerable elevation, by some of which the 
valley of the Arc may be reached from those of Dauphine* 
in the course of a long day's walk. The excursion from 
La Grave to St. Jean Maurienne presents some subjects for 
geological remark with which I shall conclude these ob- 
servations. 

The ascent of the hill, immediately behind the village 
of La Grave to the northward, soon commands fine views of 
the ravine of Malaval and the mountains which rise to the 
south. The church, a picturesque structure of the Eoman- 
esque style, stands on a green eminence, right in front of 
the great glacier which streams from the Pic du Midi ; and 
immediately to the left of it is admirably seen the section 
of granite and lias, which are there in contact for above 
half a mile, and after rain the colour of the rocks distin- 
guishes them perfectly at any distance. The first heights 
gained, we overlook a small tributary ravine which pours 
its torrent over a precipice of granite into the valley below 
to swell the volume of the Romanche. A beautiful cascade, 
just above the hamlet of Les Freaux, is the result, and this 
little stream intersects the junction of the granite and lime- 
stone, the whole cliffs of the Combe de Malaval being, 
however, composed of the former, and the limestone over- 



292 



EXCURSIONS IN DAUPHINE. 



lying it, and dipping to the W.N.W.° The mountains 
to the northward, notwithstanding their elevation and 
bareness, being composed of limestone, afford good pasture ; 
and in the small tributary ravine just mentioned, not far 
above the cascade of Les Freaux, lies the secluded village 
of Chazelets, a frontier station of the French custom-house 
officers, whose duty requires them to watch this dreary 
frontier of Savoy. My letters procured me a good recep- 
tion from them, and likewise a guide for the pass to St. J ean 
de Maurienne — that which we selected as the most direct is 
called the Col des Infernets. As we mounted, our attention 
was continually attracted by the increasing magnificence of 
the southern range opposite to us. The higher we ascended 
the more lofty did it appear — the more we receded the 
more did it enlarge. So completely is it true that the 
grandeur of these mountains is lost sight of, in consequence 
of the profundity of the ravines. Like a great city seen 
from a distance, its spires and turrets come first into view, 
when Ave emerge from the confinement of its streets. What 
seemed but a naked wall of black rock from the depths of 
the vale of the Romanche, now stood forth as but the co- 
lossal base of trackless snow-fields of many leagues in 
extent. Above and through these, rise fantastic summits, 

* Elie de Beaumont, p. 44. A little below Les Freaux, in the valley of 
the Komanche, and on the right bank of the river, I found, where the rub- 
bish had been cleared away in the recent excavations, a mass of limestone. 
I am unable to say whether it was there in situ, or was only a portion of an 
enormous mass which had fallen from the rocks above. As the cliff there 
contains, so far as I know, no limestone, the latter supposition is in some de- 
gree improbable, though it might have descended from between Les Freaux 
and La Grave ; but were the limestone really beneath the cliffs of gneiss, the 
fact would be a very interesting one, as representing a wedge or stratum of 
gneiss contained between two of lias. 



COL DES INTERNETS — LA MAURIENNE. 



293 



which perpetual winter clothes almost every week of the 
year with a slight covering of snow, again to be tossed 
towards heaven by the stormy blasts which echo from rock 
to rock, whose sounds, though mingled with the thunder of 
the avalanche, are all unheard by ear of man or beast. 

The height of the Col des Infernets is not known, and 
our barometer was now broken ; but, by the time required 
for the ascent, I estimated it at fully 5000 feet above the 
village of La Grave, which I had previously determined 
to be 4971 feet above the sea, giving, therefore, a height of 
10,000 feet. It was the third pass of this elevation (besides 
several lower ones) which we crossed in little more than 
a week. On the second of August it was covered with fresh 
fallen snow to a great depth, though in the latitude of only 
45° ; but it offered no farther difficulty than steep and dirty 
paths. So piercing, however, was the cold even at this 
season, that, though we walked as fast as we could, we had 
not descended very far into Savoy before my companion 
had nearly fainted from the effects of the alternations of 
temperature to which we had been exposed. The descent to 
St. Jean from so great an elevation was of course extremely 
long, and being in great part over arid limestone rocks, 
which for many miles afforded not a drop of good water, 
and cut the feet by their angular fragments, we were suffi- 
ciently fatigued ere we reached the fertile valley of the 
Arc, smiling with verdure, the hills clothed with rich woods, 
and the valleys with fruit trees, vineyards, and maize — in 
strange contrast with the arctic scenes we had left but a 
few hours before. But hoAv various are the causes of 
human happiness or misery ! At La Grave not a stick can 
be had for firewood. Cow dung is the chief combustible in a 
climate which may truly be said to consist of nine months 



294 



EXCURSIONS IN DAUPHINE. 



of winter and three of bad weather. Poverty, and cold, and 
filth offend the senses ; and yet who would exchange the ro- 
bust and healthy constitution of the mountaineer of Dau- 
phine for poverty amidst luxuriance, filth amidst natural 
beauty, with the superadded curse of Cretinism and Goitre 
in the sunny valleys of the Maurienne ? 

The view from the Col des Infemets presents a noble 
profile of the Dauphine* Alps, viewed from the N.W. 
Though the question of the manner and form of elevation 
of the gneissic formation, with its superincumbent limestone, 
is rather to be determined, in my opinion, by a careful com- 
parison of the dip and direction of strata at various points, 
than by the outline of the mountains seen at a distance, 
yet the latter is also well worthy of notice. The conclu- 
sion to which I on the whole incline is this, that the eleva- 
tion has not been so much circular and directed towards the 
valley of La Berarde as a centre, but rather towards an axis 
of elevation running N.N.W. and S.S.E.,and passing through 
that locality. This supposition will correspond to the really 
well-marked features of the profile when viewed in either 
continuation of that line, as, for instance, from mountains 
beyond Bourg d'Oisans, or from the main chain of Alps in 
the direction of Barcelonette ; whereas in the contrary direc- 
tion, as from the Col de Sais and the Col des Infernets, the 
mountain profile being parallel to the axis of elevation, no 
trace of grouping round a centre is perceptible. But the 
best confirmation of this view will be found in the follow- 
ing observations of the direction and dip of the strata 
(most of which have been collected from incidental notices 
in M. Elie de Beaumont's excellent memoir), which, though 
occurring in all parts of the group, indicate a very general 
tendency to parallelism in the direction which I have indi- 



GEOLOGY OF DAUPHINE. 295 

cated, excepting the neighbourhood of a single locality, 
La Grave. 



Locality. 


Formation. 


Direction 
of Strata. 


Dip. 


St. Christophe . . .' 


Gneiss. 


N.N.W. 


Vertical. 


Mont d'Agniaux above ") 
Col d'Arcine . . j 


Lineiss. 


XT TTT 

N.W. 


30° to N.E. 


Pointe de Combeiron . 


(jneiss. 


"XT TTT 

N.W. 


30° to N.E. 


Montagne d'Oursine 


Granite. 


N.W.? 


To N.E. 


Pic du Midi de la Grave 


Granite. 


N.W.? 


To N.E. 


Grand Pelvoux . . . 


Gneiss. 

Gneiss, sandst. and 


N.W. 


To S.W. 


Entraigues, Val Louise -j^ 


limest. of age of 
chalk. 


|n.w. 


45° or 50° to S.W. 


Les Freaux, La Grave 


Gneiss. 


N. 20° E. 


70° to W.N.W. 


Villard d'Arene . -f 


Contact Gneiss \ 
and Lias. j 


N.N.E. 


65° to E.S.E. 


Do 


Lias. 


N. 60° E. 


50° or 55° to S.E. 


Val Godemar . . . | 


Gneiss. 


N.N.W. 


Nearly vertical. 



\ 



CHAPTER III. 



EXCURSION ON THE GLACIERS OF THE BERNESE ALPS, 
PRECEDING THE ASCENT OF THE JUNGFRAU. 

ENGAGEMENT WITH M. AGASSIZ— RESIDENCE ON THE GLACIER OF THE LOWER AAR — TO- 
POGRAPHY 01' THE BERNESE OBERLAND AND THE GLACIERS ORIGINATING NEAR 
THE FIN STE RAARHORN — TWO PANORAMAS— EXCURSION FROM THE GRIMSEL TO GLACIER 
OF ALETSCH IN VALAIS— DEPARTURE— THE GLACIER AND COL OF THE OBERAAR— 
DESCENT ON THE GLACIER OF VIESCH— CAVERNS IN THE NEVE— ENORMOUS BLOCK OF 
STONE ON THE MORAINE— ARRIVAL AT THE CHALETS OF MARJELEN— PREPARATION 
FOR THE ASCENT OF THE JUNGFRAU. 

The summer of 1841 I spent in a series of journeys requir- 
ing almost constant exertion. The month of June and part 
of July was devoted to explore part of the volcanic coun- 
tries of central France, in company with my lamented 
friend Mr. John Mackintosh. The remainder of the month 
was devoted, in company with Mr. Heath, to the excur- 
sions in DauphinC - , which have been partly recorded in 
the preceding pages ; and from thence we proceeded by 
the shortest practicable route to reach the Grimsel Hos- 
pice in the canton of Berne, where I was under an 
engagement to meet M. Agassiz of Neufchatel on a cer- 
tain day. This cost us seven days of continuous exertion, 

* An account of the results is contained in a paper in the 20th volume 
of the Edinburgh Transactions. 



M. AGASSIZ— THE LOWER GLACIER OF THE AAR. 



297 



during which we twice crossed the main chain of Alps, and 
also several other passes of considerable elevation. 

Arrived at the Grimsel, and having met M. Agassiz, 
we proceeded, by his kind invitation, to pass some time 
on the lower glacier of the Aar. During several weeks, 
when not compelled by stress of weather to seek a more 
hospitable shelter, we remained in a sort of bivouac under 
a huge stone on the moraine of that noble glacier, and 
acquired an intimate acquaintance with the varying features 
of that astonishing ice-world which few persons have an 
opportunity of visiting, except for some hours at a time, 
generally urged by haste or overcome by fatigue. I here 
willingly record that I shall never forget the charm of those 
savage scenes ; the varying effects of sunshine, cloud, and 
storm upon the sky, the mountains, and the glacier; the 
rosy tints of sunset, the cold hues of moonlight, on a scene 
which included no trace of animation, and of which our 
party were the sole spectators. M. Agassiz had lately 
published his interesting work on the glaciers, in which he 
embodied the bold reasonings of Venetz and De Charpen- 
tier with the results of his own observation. Guided by 
this, and the ready illustrations by means of examples on 
the spot, which M. Agassiz was as willing to afford as I 
was desirous to learn from, I soon found that a mul- 
titude of interesting facts had hitherto been overlooked by 
me, although I was already tolerably familiar with alpine 
scenes, and with glaciers in particular. Animated and always 
friendly discussions were the result ; and, without admitting 
in every case the deductions of my zealous and energetic 
instructor, I readily allowed their ingenuity. Thus the 
later weeks of August passed ; and the separation of the 
party was approaching. Mr. Heath and myself intended 



298 



THE GLACIEES OF THE BERNESE ALPS. 



to close the campaign in the environs of Monte Rosa, and to 
cross the pass of Mont Cervin. In order to arrive there, 
we wished to avoid the long return down the valley of the 
Rhone from the Grimsel to Briegg, and I enquired as to the 
possibility of finishing our survey of the snowy territory 
commanded by the giant peak of the Finsteraarhorn, by 
traversing the glaciers near its southern base, leaving the 
Rhone valley considerably farther to the south. I learned 
that this was practicable, and M. Agassiz kindly promised 
us the use of his best guide. Eventually, however, he and 
his other friends determined to be of the party, and farther 
proposed, if circumstances turned out favourably, to at- 
tempt the ascent of the Jungfrau, which it was well known 
could only be attained from the southern side. 

The arrangements, so far as this part of the excursion 
was concerned, were undertaken and carried out entirely by 
M. Agassiz, and with him rests the credit of our success. I 
was not at all aware of the nature of the ground, the 
obstacles to be overcome, or the chances of doing so. Per- 
haps I did not attach so much consequence to the result as 
did some of my companions, with whom it had been a sub- 
ject of meditation and discussion in a previous year, and I 
desired to be considered as a supernumerary. One reason 
was, that I had, a week previously, severely sprained my 
back and leg by half falling into a concealed crevasse on 
the glacier of Gauli, an accident which made me lame for 
some days, and from which I had not by any means 
recovered when this expedition was decided on, of which 
the preliminary journey only was to be a formidable day's 
work of twelve hours, nearly all over snow and ice. I 
will only here add that the ascent of the Jungfrau proved 
a sovereign remedy for the sprain. 



EN UMERATION OF GLACIERS. 



299 



It may be convenient for the better understanding of 
the journal which follows, to sketch briefly the disposition 
of the mountains and glaciers through which our journey 
lay. 

The principal group of the Bernese mountains, which 
runs parallel to the great chain of Alps in nearly a N.E. and 
S.W. direction, has the Finsteraarhorn for its culminating 
point. It is principally bounded on the north by the 
valleys of Lauterbrunnen and Grindelwald, and on the south 
by the valley of the Rhone. The northern side is by much 
the steepest, has the smallest valleys, and the least consi- 
derable glaciers, but the aspect of the mountains is on that 
account more imposing. On the south, and also on the east, 
on the other hand, lateral valleys of great extent are 
found, the slope is most gradual, and the glaciers are the 
largest in Europe. 

On the north side, the Jungfrau, with its companions 
called Monch and Eigher are the most conspicuous, because 
they overhang the valleys, and the elegance of the form of 
the former has given it a deserved reputation second to none 
other in Switzerland. It is from this side absolutely inac- 
cessible. The Finsteraarhorn is situated nearly due east 
from the Jungfrau, and belongs to the same range, but it is 
near the centre of the mountain mass, and from it the 
glaciers may be said to radiate. The chief ones we shall 
now recount — (1.) The only glacier of considerable size on 
northern declivity is the Lower Grindelwald Glacier. Its 
reservoir, or snow basin, is extensive, and takes its rise close 
under the northern foot of the Finsteraarhorn. (2.) The prin- 
cipal branch of the Unteraar (Lower Aar) Glacier also rises 
immediately from the foot of the highest precipices of the 



300 



THE GLACIEES OF THE BEKNESE ALPS. 



same mountain. It is separated from the glacier last men- 
tioned by the col of the Strahleck, a passage of considerable 
interest and some danger, from Grindelwald to the Grimsel. 
This glacier has two branches or affluents. That farthest 
from the Finsteraarhorn rises between the Schreckhorn and 
Wetterhorn. The Unteraar Glacier has a nearly due E. 
course, and the hospice of the Grimsel lies in its prolonga- 
tion. It is remarkable for its vast extent and level surface, 
and here the annual progress of a glacier was first measured 
by the energetic Hugi. (3.) The Oberaar (Upper Aar) Glacier 
is parallel to the former. It does not spring so immediately 
from under the Finsteraarhorn, but from the south-eastern 
spurs of it at no great distance. This glacier is separated 
from the last by an excessively rugged and probably im- 
passable ridge. (4.) The glacier of Viesch, which runs 
almost perpendicularly to the last, and is separated from 
it at one place by a col or pass of no great difficulty 
though very elevated, takes its rise at the southern foot of 
the Finsteraarhorn, which, in the only two ascents which 
have been made of it, is approached on this side. The 
snow basin or neve is wide and magnificent, and the glacier 
is proportionably long, and descends to a comparatively low 
level, so as to reach within no great distance of the valley 
of the Rhone above Briegg, where the village of Viesch 
(from which no doubt it takes its name) is situated. (5.) 
The glacier of Aletsch, the largest in Switzerland or 
Europe, runs nearly parallel to that of Viesch, but a little 
farther west, being separated from it by a range of rugged 
hills. A passage from one to the other may, however, be 
effected in the higher part near the great chain, and also 
not far above the lower termination of the glacier of 
Viesch, where are situated the chalets of Morill or Mar- 



VIEWS FROM BERNE AND THE WASENHORN. 



301 



jelen, referred to in the following pages. The glacier of 
Aletsch has three main feeders — one which comes from near 
the ridge to the west of the Finsteraarhorn ; the central 
one from the south-east foot of the Jungfrau and the back 
of the Monch ; a third from the direction of Lotsch to the 
westward. The western boundary of the Aletsch glacier is 
the magnificent mountain of the Aletsch-horn, which has 
numerous though smaller glaciers of its own, and with 
which our survey may for the present terminate. 

These details will, I hope, be made more clear by the 
two annexed panoramic views taken from my own sketches, 
one of which represents the Bernese Alps from the north, 
or as seen from the town of Berne, the other from the south, 
as seen from the commanding summit of the Wasenhorn, 
near the pass of the Simplon. The former presents in grand 
succession the noble forms of the chain. It commences with 
the Wetterhorn on the left ; next the Schreckhorn, boldly 
stands out — the upper glacier of Grindelwald being inter- 
mediate, though unseen. Next comes the slender and dis- 
tant but imposing pyramid of the Finsteraarhorn, between 
which and the spectator (also too low to be seen) is the 
lower- glacier of Grindelwald. Then follow in a culminat- 
ing series the Eigher, the Monch, and the Jungfrau, the 
last being seen in its most familiar aspect. It is followed 
by the Gletscherhorn and Ebenefluh. 

The second view is a portion only of an extensive pano- 
rama, taken under very favourable circumstances in 1844, 
from the Wasenhorn, at a height of at least 9000 feet, which 
may be attained without much difficulty from the Simplon 
hospice, and which commands unquestionably one of the 
grandest views in the Alps, extending from the Dent du Midi 
to the mountains of the Valtelline. The portion connected 



302 



THE GLACIERS OF THE BEENESE ALPS. 



with the Bernese Alps is here engraved, and, though on a 
small scale, gives a sufficient idea of the scenes described in 
the following pages. The Grim s el hospice, from which 
our tour commences, is situated in the valley immediately 
beyond the col of the same name, which, owing to the 
great elevation of the spectator, appears in a depressed 
position towards the right of the figure, but a little to the 
left of the glacier of the Rhone. The hospice from which 
we started is in fact just under the rocky ridge marked 
Nagelis Gratli. The Oberaar glacier, first traversed in the 
following tour, lies behind the horizon of the view to the 
right of the Oberaarhorn. The col or joch of the Oberaar, 
by which we descended on the glacier of Viesch, lies 
between the Oberaarhorn and the mountain between it 
and the spectator, which is the Kastenhorn. The descent 
of the glacier of Viesch is well seen, and the passage in a 
depression of the mountains between Viesch and Aletsch 
is immediately behind the summit of the ^Eggischhom, 
which is comparatively in the foreground of the panorama. 
Concealed, therefore, by the .iEggischhorn are the chalets 
of Marjelen, where we passed the night, and also the lake 
of Aletsch ; but the extent of the glacier of Aletsch in the 
direction in which we traversed it, to its head beneath 
the Monch, is well seen, only the Jungfrau is unfortunately 
concealed by the majestic form of the Aletschhorn, which 
rises above the west bank of the glacier. This summit is 
believed to equal, if not exceed in height, the Jungfrau 
itself, and is perhaps not inaccessible, but it has not, so far 
as I am aware, been measured. It is clothed with numerous 
short glaciers, and in a valley to the westward lies the con- 

* I regret to state, that the wood-engraver has failed in giving the desired 
effect to this view. 



DEPAETUEE FEOM THE GEIMSEL. 



303 



siderable Ober Aletsch or Jager glacier, which dies away 
before attaining the main stream of ice. The great glacier 
of Aletsch terminates in the profound ravine close to the 
left-hand corner of the drawing. 

With the aid of this description, and a tolerable map 
of Switzerland, it will be easily understood that the expe- 
dition which I originally contemplated was confined to 
passing from the Grimsel hospice to Briegg in the Valais, 
by passing over the Oberaar, Viesch, and Aletsch glaciers 
in succession. The additional excursion to the Jung- 
frau was to be accomplished by passing from Viesch to 
Aletsch, either by the upper or lower pass which I have 
mentioned, tracing the central stream of the Aletsch 
glacier to its origin at the base of the Jungfrau, and 
scaling that mountain as might be found most practicable, 
then returning to the lower part of Aletsch. 

I shall now give the narrative nearly as recorded in 
my notes at the time. 

August 27th, 1841. — We started from the Grimsel, with 
fine weather, at 5 a.m., a formidable company of six travellers 
and six guides, who carried provisions ; two or three small 
knapsacks of clothes ; two or three very small casks of wine ; 
one of brandy ; a hatchet and cord for the glaciers. Jacob 
Leuthold, our confidential guide, led the way, and another, 
by name Johann Wahren, who had been under medical 
treatment for a diseased knee, knowing that the Jungfrau 
was in prospect, had stolen on before, to join us about a 
mile from the hospice, lest he should have been prevented 
from accompanying us. These two excellent guides were 
deserved favourites. Wahren, a powerful, large, good-hu- 
moured, intrepid man. Leuthold, a spare, sinewy, also very 
■. strong man, with a small twinkling grey eye, intelligent 



304 



THE GLACIEKS OF THE BEENESE ALPS. 



expression, and a mild thoughtful face, which was very 
engaging, and at the same time showed a degree of resolu- 
lution which inspires confidence. As we walked down the 
slope from the hospice, the less bright stars were vanishing 
before the dawn, and we thought that the situation had 
never before appeared half so romantic. Scarce a word 
passed in our numerous company for two hours, except a 
faint exclamation on meeting Wahren. Each was occupied 
with his own thoughts of how the expedition might end 
— which of the objects proposed he should attain — and 
probably all felt that they were engaging in an enter- 
prize of some danger as well as labour, voluntarily, and on 
their individual responsibility — a thought which affects for 
a moment the most volatile. We thus traversed in silence 
the well-known path leading to the Unteraar glacier, but 
soon left it to the right, when we took the opposite bank 
of the river, and proceeded by the faint track through loose 
masses of stones, which we had one day followed before, 
leading up the right bank of the Aar towards the Oberaar 
glacier. Long before the sun had risen upon our valley, 
Leuthold and Wahren lingered behind the other guides 
(who preceded us), to point out to M. Agassiz a distant 
peak just touched with sunlight. It was the Jungfrau ! t 
Little was said, some perhaps doubted the assertion, but 
all probably welcomed it as a good omen touching the 
projected end of our excursion. The Schreckhorn, Schnee- 

* The Jungfrau first has caught the rosy hue, 
The Blumlis Alp and Gliirnish glitter now, 
And starting into life and light, we view 

Lake, wood, and river from the mountain's brow. 
Promethean-like the vital spark seems given, 
Even at the instant, to all under heaven. 

Poetische Reise (by a Lady), p. 57. 



GLACIEE OF THE OBERAAR. 



305 



bighorn, and other mountains rising above the Unteraar 
glacier, had a grand appearance as we ascended the 
rugged and now pathless slope, which leads to the upper 
glacier of the Aar. In two hours, that is, at 7 a.m., we 
were already at the wretched shepherds' huts, which lie 
below the foot of the glacier, at a height already of 7000 
French feet, (according to Hugi), above the sea. Instru- 
ments, I should have said, we had none, excepting only 
hammers, and thermometers, a hair hygrometer, a chrono- 
meter, polariscope, and compass. Three barometers had 
been broken during the summer's campaign, and one put 
Out of order ; there was none remaining to accompany us. 

The Oberaar glacier lies in a wide, rather open valley ; 
it has a regular, well defined form, with longitudinal crevasses 
near its lower extremity, and generally a well-marked 
vertical striated structure, parallel to its length, as in the 
Unteraar, although this has no medial moraine. The end 
front of the glacier exhibits the usual false appearance of 
horizontal stratification, curved upwards at the sides, as 
in the Rhone glacier. 

The lateral moraine is well developed; the glacier is 
increasing, and the blocks it disengages push and furrow 
up the soil in wrinkles in a singular manner. We followed 
its left bank for about half-an-hour, then made a halt, 
when we observed a shepherd descending a tributary 
glacier on the other side at this early hour. We now got 
upon the ice, which presents this year a very even surface; 
the transverse section of the glacier below is convex — of 
the upper part, where it passes into Firn® as usual, concave. 

* Firn, German for neve, the part of a glacier from which the snow 
does not altogether melt. It in fact becomes incorporated with the ice 
during the summer months, whilst part of it thaws. 



30G 



THE GLACIEBS OF THE BEENESE ALPS. 



We entered the firn, or granular snow, the higher parts of 
which were horizontally stratified. Walking became less 
secure ; crevasses were to be avoided. We followed Jacob 
Leuthold in a line. A chamois was seen on our right. 
These animals are now scarcest, I was informed, in the 
higher Alps of the Oberland, and most frequent near Inter- 
laken, &c. where they are protected, for the chase is 
illegal. Jacob has killed seventy-two, chiefly in spring 
and autumn. 

By and bye the ascent became steeper, and the snow 
more yielding as we approached the col, precisely at the head 
of the glacier, between the Oberaarhorn and Kastenhorn. 
On the border of the firn we stopped for the important 
operation of putting on gaiters before entering on the snow. 
This our guides always did with great solemnity. The view 
looking back from this point was striking ; the rounding 
and polishing of the rocks on the left side of the glacier, 
and to a great height, was very evident. The weather 
now looked no longer favourable ; clouds crowned the 
Oberaarhorn, and even descended near the col ; we pushed 
on, and soon reached some dangerous crevasses, which 
it required considerable precaution to pass. The great 
quantity of snow facilitated this, and at half-past ten we 
arrived safely at the col which divides the glacier of 
Oberaar from that of Viesch. The height of the col of the 
Oberaar is, according to Hugi, by different measures, from 
10,000 to 10,400 French feet, say 11,000 English. It is a 
depression in the principal chain of the Bernese Alps at 
this point, being connected on the left with the mass be- 
longing to the Finsteraarhorn, and on the left with the less 
important range which extends to the Sidelhorn and the 
col of the Grimsel. The rocks on the right-hand side were 



NEVE OF THE GLACIER OF VTESCH— RED SNOW. 307 

schistose, intermediate between gneiss and mica slate, con- 
taining a good deal of limestone in a friable form, perhaps 
like that which Saussure described as calc tuff on the 
Mont Cervin. Some enormous crevasses prevented our 
descent by the right hand, on the glacier of Viesch ; by 
the left we clambered down, partly on loose rocks, partly 
by the snow, and soon reached the comparatively level 
surface of the Viescher firn. Keller's map of these gla- 
ciers is bad ; Worl's and Hugi's detailed one are perhaps 
worse ; and the Munich map of 1830 worst of all. It 
is hardly possible to recognise the position of even the 
chief points 

When we descended from the col of the Oberaar, we had 
before us, and rather to the right, a col which would have 
conducted us to the glacier of Aletsch, where it divides in 
three, below the foot of the Jungfrau. The question was, 
whether we were to cross this col, or go down the glacier of 
Viesch. As we walked across the even flat, my left foot sunk 
in a crevasse, as my other one had done in the glacier of 
Gauli a short time before, an accident by which I was rather 
seriously lamed. It sufficed to show on what a treacherous 
surface we were walking, as we soon after learned more 
fully. Eed snow was here very abundant ; its colour 
comes out by trampling; our course was marked as by 
footsteps of blood. Soon after, Jacob (who had now car- 
ried for a long way the heaviest package of all the six 
guides) suddenly stopped, deposed his burden, sat down, 
and said we should dine. The suddenness of the procedure, 
and the arbitrariness of the command, rather amused us. 
But we were in no humour to dispute it, and accommodated 
ourselves as well as we could. A table was made of one of 
the porters' frames stuck in the snow, and to work we went, 



308 



THE GLACIERS OF THE BERNESE ALPS. 



with cold meat, bread and wine. After dinner, the sky- 
was anxiously consulted. No one, perhaps, except Jacob 
Leuthold, understood very well what were the alternatives 
to be pursued in good or bad weather. He decided that 
the col which separated us from the Aletsch glacier should 
not be crossed, but that the glacier of Viesch should be 
descended to the Moriller See, a lake of Aletsch, where 
we should sleep in the chalets. Notwithstanding some 
grumbling from the other guides, and pointing to a clearing 
sky, this was put in practice. 

I was glad that it was so determined. Viesch is a 
magnificent specimen of a glacier. The crevasses in the 
firn became wider as the slope was greater, and we saw 
some yawning chasms with greenish -white walls (the 
colour of the firn), forty, sixty, or eighty feet wide. But 
the grandest of all were some just under our feet. A 
casual opening in the snow but a few inches wide, disclosed 
to us several times some of the most exquisite sights in 
nature. The crevasses of the firn or neVe are not like those 
of the glacier — mere wedge-like splits with icy walls — but 
roomy expanded chambers of irregular forms, partly snow, 
and partly ice ; partly roofed over with tufted bridges of 
snow ; partly open to the air, with vast dislocated masses 
tossing about. Stalactites of ice, possibly forty or fifty feet 
long,* hanging from the walls and sides exactly like those in 
the finest calcareous grotto, but infinitely superior in so far 
as the light which shews them is not the smoky glare of a 
few tallow candles, but a mellow radiance streaming from 
the sides of the caverns themselves, and which, by the 
faintness or intensity of its delicate hue, assists the eye in 
seizing the relations of many parts. 

* So in my notes. 



DESCENT OF THE GLACIER OF V1ESCH. 



309 



I do not recollect to have imagined anything of the 
kind so exquisitely beautiful as one in particular of these 
chasms, over which by chance we found ourselves walking, 
when a gap not a foot wide in its snowy roof admitted us 
to the somewhat awful acquaintance of the concealed 
abysses over which we trod." 

The horizontal stratification of the Jim was here still 
distinct. Soon after, it became confused in the general 
rupture of the mass by the declivity over which it was 
forced to incline. The ice now became too crevassed to be 
passed in the centre, and an extensive tributary glacier 
(according to some, the main feeder of the Viescher-Glet- 
scher) falling in from the right, we were unable to follow 
the side, and were obliged to pass over the latter, which 
was fearfully crevassed, and appeared all but impracticable. 
Nevertheless the skill of our guides accomplished this with 
very few bad steps; and we resumed the right moraine 
of the united glacier. After a pause we proceeded, not 
without difficulty, being forced in one place to leave the 
glacier entirely, and to climb the rocks and re-descend a 
considerable precipice again to its level. The moraine 
continued very uneven, and, now upon it, now on the 
bank, and now on the solid ice, we had a rough walk until 
we came to some small chalets, not a great way above the 
lower termination of the glacier of Viesch. Less than an 
hour above these chalets, we observed very admirable 
polished surfaces in contact with ice, whose very recent 
character, and the height to which they were rubbed, left 
hardly a doubt as to their origin. Near this we observed 

* " Eingsum in dammerenden Abgriinden die Welt in grauser Gestalten- 
fiille sich vergletschert." — Hugi. 



310 



THE GLACIERS OF THE BERNESE ALPS. 



an enormous transported block on the ice, probably 100 
feet long, and 40 or 50 high. It had been detached from 
the rocks of the higher glacier, and in the course of a few 
years more will be deposited on the terminal moraine. 
The glacier has also medial moraines, which may be 
traced amongst all the fissures and aiguilles into which it 
is broken. From the chalets above mentioned (marked 
auf Tiler on Worl's map, more correctly auf dem Titer), we 
had a steep hill to ascend on the right (which, at the end of 
such a day's journey, was fatiguing) to reach the chalets of 
Marjelen. They are situated at a height, it is stated, of not less 
than 7600 English feet, near the Moriller or Aletscher See, 
on the glacier of Aletsch, which lies at so great a height here 
above that of Viesch, that this long and steep ascent brings 
us only to its level. The lake has been artificially drained 
in this direction to avoid the floods occasioned by an accu- 
mulation of water behind the ice of the Aletsch glacier. This 
condition of things is interesting, because a small increase 
of ice would give a second outlet to the glacier of Aletsch 
through that of Viesch, and the polished rocks between the 
Moriller See and the Viesch glacier are similar to those 
on the col of the Grimsel. 

We arrived, some of us at least heartily tired, at half- 
past five at the chalets, one of which afforded much more 
tolerable accommodation than could have been looked for. 
We found plenty of milk and butter, good fire, with sufficient 
hay (rather damp indeed) to lie on, made more agreeable by 
great civility and a cordial welcome from the owners. The 
weather seemed more promising. If fine, to-morrow was 
to be devoted to the Jungfrau, and a man was despatched 
down to the village of Viesch for a ladder to cross the crc- 



ARRIVAL AT THE CHALETS. 



311 



vasses. I lay down, but could not sleep. Past eleven, the 
man returned from a fruitless errand, and another messenger 
was sent off to obtain the indispensable article at all hazards. 
I got up, and went out ; the evening was splendid, with a 
bright moon. I afterwards fell asleep, and slept soundly 
till five, when the man returned with the ladder. 



CHAPTER IV. 



THE ASCENT OF THE JUNGFEAU. 

HISTORY OF ATTEMPTS TO ASCEND THE JUNGFEAU — DEPARTURE FROM THE CHALETS OF 
MARJELEN— LAKE AND GLACIER OF ALETSCH— PROSPECT OF THE RANGE OF THE 
JUNGFRAU— THE FIRN OR NEVE— THE ASCENT COMMENCES— PASSAGE OF THE GREAT 
CREVASSE— COL OF THE ROTH-THAL REACHED— FINAL ASCENT OF 800 FEET ON A SLOPE 
OF ICE— THE SUMMIT DESCRIBED— THE VIEW, AND STUPENDOUS CLOUD— RETURN TO 
THE CHALETS BY MOONLIGHT— THE LOWER PORTION OF THE GLACIER OF ALETSCH 
DESCRIBED— ITS TERMINATION IN THE RAVINE OF NATE RS— ARRIVAL AT BRIEGG. 

The ascent of the Jungfrau was claimed to have been 
first made in 1811 by the Brothers Meyer of Aarau, who 
published an account of it. Their flag was not, however, 
seen from the valleys, and probably the inhabitants of 
Grindelwald were not prepared to watch for it, the ascent 
being made from the southern side, in which direction the 
Jungfrau is not visible from any inhabited spot what- 
ever. This, the only independent evidence of their success, 
being wanting, doubt was thrown upon the reality of the 
expedition, and another of the same family, the Meyers, 
repeated it next year, when he asserts having again gained 
the summit from the eastern side. The flag, I suppose, re- 
mained still unseen, for, unreasonable as it may appear, a 
general scepticism continued to prevail as to their having 
really attained the peak of the Jungfrau. At this distance 
of time it is impossible to unravel these doubts, which are 



ASCENT OF THE JUNGFRAU — DEPARTURE. 



313 



not perhaps deserving of much weight,* unless in so far as 
they are confirmed by the unquestionable ambiguity of 
the narratives themselves, which is indeed such as to be 
scarcely accountable, except on the supposition that they 
had been written some time after the events — although the 
details of such an expedition can hardly be erased from 
any memory by the lapse even of years. The description 
by the Meyers of the very peculiar form of the summit is, 
however, sufficiently precise to make it very probable that 
it was written from observation. At the same time, it 
appears to me (as to others) little short of impossible, that 
the Jungfrau can be gained on the side of the Monch, as 
described in the second of these journeys. 

A long interval succeeded the journey of the Meyers • 
but in 1828 Baumann and some other peasants of Grindel- 
wald unquestionably attained the summit, and by the same 
route as we afterwards took. The enterprising Swiss natur- 
alist and traveller Hugi, soon after made some attempts, 
but from the side of Lauterbrunnen, which presents pro- 
bably insuperable obstacles. He was afterwards foiled by 
bad weather on the opposite side, when our present guide 
Jacob Leuthold accompanied him. This was in 1832, the 
date, I believe, of the last attempt of the kind. I now 
resume my narrative, commenced in the last chapter. 

* I observe, however, that it is mentioned by M. G. Studer, in the 
account of his subsequent ascent, that a respectable person assured him 
that he had seen the Meyer's flag from Unterseen. The Valaisan guides, 
on the other hand, maintained that they alone, and not the Meyers, reached 
the top. As an instance of the disposition to suggest and propagate doubts 
on such matters, I may mention that two years after our successful ascent, 
being at the inn on the Faulhorn, near Grindelwald, the ascent of the 
Jungfrau in 1841 having been incidentally mentioned, I heard the fact 
stoutly denied; and yet our flag was seen, I believe, as far as Thun. 



314 



ASCENT OF THE JUNGEKAU. 



August 28tfA, 1841. — The expedition for the ladder pre- 
vented our leaving the huts of Marjelen (7180 French feet, 
Hugi) till 6 a.m. when we set forward, the travellers first, the 
guides behind. Three quarters of an hour brought us to 
the end of the lake next the glacier. It is, I believe, 
the only one in the Alps in such a position, being enclosed, 
as I have endeavoured to explain, in an elbow of the valley 
in which the glacier of Aletsch rests by the ice of the 
glacier itself. The usual efflux of the lake is towards Viesch 
by the artificial canal already mentioned, but occasionally 
its waters drain off almost entirely beneath the ice of the 
glacier in the opposite direction. There . are floating 
masses on its surface, and a precipitous wall of ice next 
the glacier. The artificial outlet is at the farther end next 
the huts. Fortunately, walking is comparatively easy on 
the upper part of the Aletsch glacier, for its extent is 
very great. We had not much trouble in traversing the 
crevasses, and each advanced in his own path without much 
communication. M. Agassiz had previously announced 
Leuthold's declaration, that, owing to the lateness of the 
hour of departure, all must be prepared to follow at a 
tolerably quick pace, or else give up the attempt. 

At first we had the Monch right in front, the great 
Eigher a little behind it, and to the right. Soon after 
reaching the glacier, the Jungfrau itself appeared. Plate 
X. is from a sketch drawn on a subsequent occasion, and 
gives an idea of the disposition of the mountains near the 
head of Aletsch. 

I immediately perceived that the ascent must be up the 
steep snowy slope, immediately to the left of the summit, 
and that this would be the chief danger, if the ascent was 
otherwise practicable. The rocks just appeared to the left 



ASCENT OF THE GLACIEE OF ALETSCH. 



315 



of this slope, but not so as to give much hope of a guard or 
safe footing ; they are in fact the prominences of the tre- 
mendous precipices of the Eoth-Thal, into which a false step 
would hurry the climber. Looking back, we had a superb 
view of the chain of Monte Eosa, though not of the Monte 
Rosa itself. The Matterhorn (Mont Cervin) rose in superior 
grandeur between the Weisshorn and Strahlhorn, which are 
generally seen from the Valais. 

After nearly two hours' walk on the glacier, the cre- 
vasses became concealed with snow, and dangerous, then 
the whole passes into the state of Jim and is nearly safe ; 
whilst a great arm of the glacier (c) separates to the left, 
towards the glaciers of the Lotschthal. On the right (at d) 
we left the col leading across the range of the Viescher- 
horner to the top of the glacier of Viesch. 

After 4^ hours' hard walking, we made a halt, where the 
snow thickened near the foot of the hill marked Trugberg 
in the sketch. This name (the deceptive hill) was given to 
it by some of our party in consequence of the man whom 
we brought with the ladder from the chalet, insisting that 
it was the Jungfrau — an assertion scorned by our leader, 
Leuthold, who knew very well what he was about, from 
the experience of his former reconnaisance with Hugi, 
when he approached the Jungfrau from a direction in 
which it could not be mistaken. All persons, however, 
who have ascended the Aletsch glacier admit that the 
familiar forms seen from Interlaken are no longer recog- 
nizable. The place of our halt was at the entrance of 
the deep bay or recess at the head of the Aletsch glacier, 
the Monch before us, to the left the Jungfrau rising from 
the snowy plain almost precipitously. Still farther to 
the left, the projecting ridge of the Krantzberg, on the 



316 



ASCENT OP THE JUNGFKAU. 



right the ridge of the Trugberg. We were somewhat 
exhausted by the rapidity of our march from the chalets, 
and partook of bread and wine. Then the serious task 
of putting on gaiters which Jacob performed with more 
than common solemnity and deliberation. After half an 
hour we started forward up the narrowing and steepening 
neve, always with splendid weather. The walking became 
more laborious from the depth of the snow, but we fol- 
lowed all in one another's steps. Crevasses in the higher 
firn commenced, and the rope was produced. Jacob went 
first, having tied it round his waist. Johann Jauon held 
the rope fast, which was then passed round the left arm of 
every one behind in succession. Here the real ascent 
began. Melchior Banholzer, a young man we brought from 
the Grimsel, carried the ladder, which was 22 or 24 feet 
long, with great dexterity— going every where indifferently, 
making a path for himself, and advancing with his load 
whilst others rested. Several crevasses and some loose 
ground being passed, we were again on deep snow of con- 
siderable depth and softness. It became also very steep, 
and about this time we turned round the foot of the hill 
marked b in Plate X., when we found ourselves in a 
narrow valley terminating in precipices at the proper base 
of the Jungfrau. The precipices on the right were of rock, 
those on the left of ice and hardened snow. We pushed 
nearly straight forward, and attained a considerable height 
by climbing up the steep soft snow. At a height which I 
estimated at not above 12,000 English feet, I felt my breath- 
ing sensibly affected — but I was much fatigued this morning 
on starting ; after a few steps at a time, I felt some exhaus- 
tion, which passed off after a moment's repose. Some 
others of the party felt the same thing about the same level. 



PASSING A CJREVASSE. 



317 



Having passed some trifling crevasses, and rested twice, 
we were forced to come to a decision as to the exact course 
to be chosen for the ascent. The snowy precipice before 
us presented an enormous fissure near its base, the usual 
separation of the icy part of the snow on the higher moun- 
tains, and the neve or fim beneath. It was doubtful whether, 
on account of the limited length of the ladder, we could 
both cross the crevasse and ascend the steep face beyond. 
The section was this. 

The ladder was plant- 
ed at 6, and steps made 
in the very steep face 
above, which had a good 
consistence, allowing the 
feet to be well dug in, and 
sustaining them. Jauon 
went up and held one 
end of the cord as a sort 
of rail, another holding 
it below, and so we proceeded one by one.° I suppose that 
the lower part of the ascent was at an angle of above 60°, 
though only for a short way. Above, the snow being 

* In the narrative of the subsequent ascent of the Jungfrau by M. Gr. 
Studer, we find a striking account of a descent into this terrific crevasse of 
one of the guides, Banholzer by name, above referred to. M. Studer 
in descending had allowed his cap to drop into the abyss — nothing would 
hinder young Banholzer from trying to recover it. Tied by a rope, 95 
feet in length, he descended amidst ice walls, and overhanging masses, 
and gigantic icicles everywhere menacing detachment, and when he could 
get no lower by aid of the rope, he detached himself, and perceiving the ob- 
ject of his search still below him, he quitted the rope and clambered alone 
out of sight and hearing of his fellows into the dim and awful gulf. He 
descended in all some 120 feet, then coolly returned with his prize ! The 
crevasse, however, there seemed as unfathomable as ever. 




318 



ASCENT OF THE JUNGFKAU. 



soft, it was easy to keep our footing, and we ascended to 
a sort of hollow where we could rest a moment. The snow 
here lay at an angle of 50°. 

Jacob Leuthold and some of the party had now ad- 
vanced to a second crevasse more to the right, which 
threatened to become a gulph of separation between the 
fixed and the detached ice, so that the mass we had mount- 
ed since quitting the ladder might be considered as but 
half supported. Jacob and three others had crossed this 
crevasse, and I stood a little below it, when a distinct noise 
was heard beneath the ice. J acob felt a sensible subsidence. It 
gave us an unpleasant sensation. We got all safely, however, 
across the crevasse, and mounting obliquely a soft steep 
snowy surface, which had been first carefully sounded with 
a staff, we arrived at two o'clock upon the col at the head of 
the Both-Thai, a precipitous ravine on the northern face of 
the Jungfrau, communicating with the valley of Lauterbrun- 
nen, and by which Hugi had vainly attempted to ascend. 
This col is marked a in the view, Plate X. ; we ascended 
by the hollow immediately to the right of it. Clouds 
had now collected from the west, and attached themselves 
to the mountain, so that we could not see at all into the 
Roth-Thai ; but the eastern view and the top of the moun- 
tain remained clear. Our height might be 12,800 or 12,900 
English feet. There remained the final slope between a 
and the summit. Poor Wahren with his bad knee was 
already quite exhausted, and attained this col with diffi- 
culty — but no higher. 

We drank some wine and advanced to the arduous 
ascent, keeping to the right hand as near the precipice 
overhanging the Aletsch Glacier as we could do without 
the risk of falling through the treacherous bank of snow, 



ASCENDING THE ICE-SLOPE. 



319 



which often overhangs precipices, apparently sound and 
level above, but projecting like the eave of a roof without 
any support below, as in the figure. 
Whilst we were marching patiently 
at what seemed a safe distance from 
the edge, Jacob made us almost 
tremble by piercing, with a few 
blows of his alpenstock, the frail 
covering within two or three feet 
of us, revealing through the gap the 
vacuity through which we might 
have dropped a stone upon the 
glacier beneath. The snow helped us but a few paces. 
It was plain that the ascent was to be made over ice, 
and that our steps must be cut. Leuthold went first 
with a small axe, and with a rope round his waist, and 
was followed by Jauon, who improved the steps with the 
aid of his iron-shod staff, and held the rope attached to 
Jacob. Next to him the travellers, then three other guides 
— all of us with the rope twisted round our left arms. Since 
we ascended nearly straight up, as on a stair, this rope was 
a real security, which it could not have been to the same 
extent had we ascended obliquely, when the fall of one 
must, in all probability, have dragged the others after him. 
Here, if one made a false step, he would be supported by 
those behind, and at the same time, an alarm being given, 
the rope would have been tightened by all those in front. 
At different parts of the ascent I took the angle carefully, 
which in several places amounted to 43° and 45° on the real 
ice. The steps were more than a foot high, and we reckon- 
ed that in the course of our two hours' ascent about 700 
steps were made. We estimated the height of this part of 




320 



ASCENT OF THE JUNGFEAU. 



the mountain at 800 or 900 feet. Before we had advanced 
far, one of our guides turned back, not liking the ascent. 
Next to Leuthold and Johann Jauon, Banholzer, the young 
man who carried the ladder, was the most successful, spirit- 
ed, and attentive, and by and bye assisted J acob in cutting 
the steps, having at his immediate risk jumped up the 
snowy ledge on the right, in order to change his place in 
the row. The work proceeded but slowly, when we were 
enveloped in clouds, which had all the time filled the Koth- 
Thal, in such a way that we scarcely saw into it — but at 
intervals we saw the top. Our position seemed rather 
frightful, hanging thus on a slope of unbroken slippery 
ice, steep as a cathedral roof, or those of the high pitched 
Dutch houses ; with precipices at the bottom of the slope, 
of an unknown and dizzy depth. We were surrounded 
with mist, so that we occasionally only saw our imme- 
diate position, suspended thus in the midst of the frozen 
mountain, from which it really appeared as if a gust of 
wind might have detached our whole party. Fortu- 
nately it was calm, otherwise we must have suffered 
greatly from the cold, long before we reached the top, 
owing to our slow progress, and our feet being perpetually 
forced into the steps. I felt my toes benumbed, and had 
some trouble to restore animation by shaking and striking 
them. This slow progress, on the other hand, took away 
any suffering from difficult breathing. After we had gone 
on in the same way for nearly two hours, straight up the 
right hand edge of the slope, we made to the left, gained 
a few rocks which lay loosely there, on a less slope than 
the rest, and saw the top immediately before us, covered 
with soft snow. 

The top remained separated from us by a ridge of snow 



DESCRIPTION OF THE SUMMIT. 



321 



about 30 feet long, resembling an excessively steep house 
roof, an expansion of which, at the farther end., formed 
the snowy pinnacle to which we successively arrived, but 



A 




SKETCH OF THE TOP OP THE JUNGPRAU. 



could only remain one at a time.* The annexed figures 
(sketched soon after the ascent from recollection) will give 
an idea of the very pe- 
culiar form of this singu- 
lar mountain top. The 
whole is an exceedingly 
narrow ridge directed 
nearly north and south, 
flanked on each side by 
terrific precipices. The 
summit B, which is snow 
covered, is the one first 
reached. The part A is 
but a few feet higher, in 
form almost like a bee- 
hive, of snow piled up, 
and so small that even 
when smoothed over and 
trodden down, scarcely 

* The party on the top consisted of MM. Agassiz, Desor, Dnchatdier, 
myself, and four guides. 




322 



ASCENT OF THE JUNOFKAU. 



afforded footing for more than one person at a time. The 
access to it is along the ridge above mentioned, apparently 
of heaped snow lying at the natural angle of repose, ter- 
minating in precipices on each side. The snow was fresh 
but binding, and the guides made a series of footsteps with 
the toes inwards, on one slope of the ridge, by means of 
which we advanced sideways, securing ourselves by the 
alpenstock planted on the opposite slope, until we reached 
the apex. In this proceeding, however, though awkward, 
there was no real danger, the footing being good. 

Here on snows, where never human foot 
Of common mortal trod, we . . . tread ; 

And this most steep fantastic pinnacle, 

The fretwork of some earthquake — where the clouds 

Pause to repose themselves in passing by. * 

It was four o'clock when we reached the summit of the 
Jungfrau, and we staid half an hour. The view to the east 
was generally clear — the Finsteraar and Schreckhorn, the 
glacier of Aletsch, the Monch and Eigher — and we got 
a glimpse of the bottom of the valley of Grindelwald. 
The view to the west was in one respect scarcely less re- 
markable, for there a magnificent cumulus-headed cloud 
stood in wonderful majesty, reaching apparently from the 
valley to at least 2000 feet above us. It was a glorious 
sight, a single cloud at least 10,000 feet high ! 

The mists boil up amongst the glaciers ; clouds 
Rise curling fast beneath me, white and sulphury, 
Like foam from the roused ocean of deep hell. 

The thermometer at the top was 25°.5. When the mist 
approached, the icy spiculse in it were distinctly visible. 
* Manfred, Act II. Scene 3. 



DESCENT OF THE ICE SLOPE. 



323 



The sky to the east was clear and fine, but not of so intense 
a blue as we had observed it lower down, before the fog 
came on. On the top the polarization by Savart's polaris- 
cope seemed quite normal and distinct, the tints brighter 
than I have often seen them from the Aar glacier. Its 
intensity diminishes as the sky is of a darker hue. I took 
specimens of the rock, which is a sort of gneiss by no means 
crystalline, and we began to think of descending. I felt 
no discomfort or uneasiness of any kind on the top, nor did 
any one else. We drank some wine which we had brought 
with us. 

The descent promised to be much more alarming than 
the ascent, but by the excellent management of the guides, 
it was little worse. We were carefully connected by the 
rope ; the guides were distributed amongst us, and Ban- 
holzer was very useful in assisting me in placing my feet 
in the steps made during the ascent. We walked with our 
faces to the wall of ice, as in descending a ladder. During 
our descent I experienced a singular and painful deception. 
Looking accidentally into the abyss between my feet, I saw 
the basket and clothes we had left on the little snow plain 
above the ladder at the crevasse. Some of the party, who 
had not joined in the last ascent, had been there shortly 
before. I perceived something black begin to move near 
the spot, and descend with an accelerated pace, not unlike 
a man hurried along a snow incline with tremendous velo- 
city. It was an eagle which had been examining the con- 
tents of our basket ! 

In one hour we reached the bottom of the slope of ice 
at the col of the Eoth-Thal. From thence we descended 
the steep snow, much in the same manner, as far as the 
crevasse across which the ladder stood, which, when we 



324 



ASCENT OF THE JUNGFKAU. 



had passed with light and thankful hearts, we ran down 
the snow with little farther anxiety, for the track we had 
before taken guided us in safety across the crevasses. The 
snow had been softened since morning, so that in many 
places we sunk to the knee, which made the descent rather 
laborious. At length we reached the foot of the steep 
snow at 6 h. 45 m. p.m., or two and a quarter hours from 
the top. During the latter part of this descent, our foot- 
steps left distinct flesh coloured marks by exposing the red 
snow beneath that freshly fallen. 

We walked gaily along the snow in the twilight for an 
hour or so, till the crevasses commenced, when the moon 
shone out, and all clouds cleared away. We connected our- 
selves by a cord, to avoid all danger, and proceeded by 
her light at a rapid pace down the glacier, with the occa- 
sional interruption of the immersion of one or both legs of 
a companion, through the treacherous fresh snow which 
covered the crevasses or pools of ice-cold water. 

We heard calls or cries of a man to the left, and thought 
him in difficulty, and charitably (at Jacob's suggestion) 
crossed half the glacier to join him. It was a messenger from 
the chalets, who brought warm milk and other provisions. 
We then pursued our way unbound down the glacier with 
great elasticity, by a splendid moonlight brilliancy, reflected 
by the crystallized surface of the ice, and still more beau- 
tiful was its effect on the ice-cliffs and islands of the Lake 
of Aletsch when we arrived there. We took a short rest, 
and then had a disagreeable stumbling walk across the 
blocks between the glacier and the chalets of Miirjelen, 
where we arrived at half-past eleven, by no means over- 
fatigued, having been seventeen and a half hours on foot. 
None of our party complained of thirst, though we took no 



SUBSEQUENT ASCENT OF M. G. STUDEK. 



325 



water for twelve hours at least, and part of the time the 
reflected heat was intense. We ate snow, however, pretty 
freely. 

The difficulties and dangers of the ascent of the Jung- 
frau may be fairly judged of by the preceding, certainly not 
exaggerated, account. It must be remembered, however, 
that the forms of ice are at all times liable to alteration, and 
that the description of one season by no means invariably 
applies to another. Travellers have thus been very unwar- 
rantably blamed for either over, or under-stating the obsta- 
cles which they may have met with in particular positions. 
The only ascent which, so far as I know, has since taken 
place, was effected by Messrs. Gottlieb Studer and Biirki 
in 1842, and even then, only one year after us, they found 
the second glacier crevasse, on the ascent to the col of the 
Roth-Thai, far more formidable than we had done. Another 
reflection suggests itself — that it was an uncalled-for exer- 
tion to cross the glaciers of Oberaar and Viesch one day, 
and to ascend the Jungfrau the next. The great uncer- 
tainty of the weather could alone have excused such a pro- 
ceeding, especially taken in conjunction with the formidable 
disadvantage of making a start from the chalets so late as 
six a.m., and performing a forced march in consequence 
throughout the day. We ought unquestionably to have 
spent the day at Marjelen, and have started the following 
morning before dawn. M. Studer, indeed, passed the night 
on a' rock half-way up the glacier, from which his party 
(after a miserable night) started at four a.m. ; having thus, 
on the whole, an advantage of four and a half hours over 
us, yet they returned to the chalets at night very little 



326 



ASCENT OF THE JUNGFKAU. 



earlier than we had done, and remained but little longer on 
the top. 

The day following our ascent, some of the party, includ- 
ing myself, proceeded from Marjelen to Briegg in the Valais 
by the steep and tedious, though not difficult path, by the 
extensive Morill Alp, where are fed in summer large num- 
bers of the cattle which form the wealth of the Valaisan. 
But I shall take the opportunity of describing the more 
interesting and less easy route which I traversed three 
years later (1844), when I re-visited Aletsch for the purpose 
of examining the glacier more thoroughly. Having spent 
two nights at Marjelen, I returned to the Aletsch See, 
then nearly empty, its waters having passed out a fortnight 
before under the ice of the glacier, and occasioned an over- 
flow of the torrent at its extremity, and proceeded to 
descend the glacier, sometimes on the ice, sometimes on 
the left bank. The structure of the ice, so far as I could 
observe it during various different excursions, possesses 
less of the well-marked ribboned character which is usual 
in glaciers of the first order, than I have any where else 
observed. Its appearance is more completely crystalline 
than perhaps that of any of the ice in Switzerland, present- 
ing great plates at various angles, which reflect light in the 
beautiful manner above mentioned, as we saw it by moon- 
shine.* 

The blue bands, such as they are, generally tend from 
the side obliquely towards the centre ; but they are much 
contorted and confused. This may be explained on the 
principles which in my former work on the Alps I have 

* The analogous structure of the Norwegian glacier of Nygaard has 
been described in a previous part of this volume. 



STRUCTURE OF THE ICE OF ALETSCH. 



327 



applied to other glaciers, by observing the immense 
breadth of the glacier, and the remarkable uniformity of 
that breadth, the absence of great rocky promontories, and 
also of important tributary glaciers, all of which circum- 
stances tend to produce (just as in the corresponding case 
of a river) a comparative uniformity of the motion from 
centre to side of the glacier, at least until within a short 
distance of either shore, and consequently an absence of 
that differential motion producing internal friction, by 
which the production of these blue bands has been ex- 
plained. To this may be added the small inclination of 
the glacier of Aletsch, which in the part I principally 
examined does not exceed 4°, thus diminishing the effect 
of gravity on the plastic mass, and giving less decision to 
its movements. It is thus that great rivers, moving on ex- 
tremely small declivities, have no absolutely regular gra- 
dation of velocity from side to centre ; but the current is 
diverted into numerous eddies, which are not worked out 
as in a narrow stream, by the regular drag towards the 
faster moving mass of water in the middle. 

I finally quitted the ice nearly two hours' walk below 
the Lake of Aletsch, and crossing over a projection of the 
hill, close to the chalets of Morill, descended by a very 
insignificant path into the deep valley, in the bottom of 
which the lower extremity of the glacier buries itself, 
having wound round the projection just mentioned. My 
wish was to follow the glacier as closely as possible to the 
termination of its vast career, but from the point where I 
quitted it, the declivity increases so rapidly that the ice is 
impassable, and the banks become sheer precipices. The 
descent by which my guide (a peasant I had brought from 
Morill) led me, was nearly pathless, but extremely romantic 



328 



ASCENT OF THE JUNGFKAU. 



the green slopes being often intermixed with cliffs, and the 
whole partially clothed with pines. We sometimes lost 
our way amongst the broken ground, but at length I was 
gratified by a very fine view over the excessively narrow 
ravine into which the glacier is finally squeezed. It con- 
tracts suddenly, and the surface is dirty, crevassed, and 
steep. The greater part of this singular valley is inacces- 
sible by the side of the stream, and can only be reached by 
long circuits over the adjoining mountains, some of which 
are of considerable height, for example the Bell-Alp, a 
summer pasturage on the west side of Aletsch. I was 
unable to gain a sight of the very lowest point of the glacier, 
which seems impenetrably concealed in a ravine, probably 
unapproachable by man. The rapidity of its fall, and its 
rapid attenuation to perhaps one-sixth or one-eighth of its 
breadth above, are very striking. It does not extend far 
below the point of confluence with the valley of the Ober 
Aletsch or Jager glacier, the ice of which does not extend 
so far as the main glacier. The Ober Aletsch glacier 
appears accessible, and the pass from it into the valley of 
Lotsch is said not to be difficult. I was even assured by 
my guide that a man of Morill had walked by the Bell Alp, 
Jager glacier, and Lotsch to Lauterbrunnen in one day ! 

The final descent into the bottom of the valley of 
Naters, traversed by the tremendous torrent of Massa, to 
which the drainage of Aletsch gives rise, is magnificent 
though laborious. The splendid range of Mischabel- 
liorner, between Saas and Zermatt, the Matterhorn and 
Weisshorn, all mountains of the first class, and which in 
scarcely any other point of view, can be distinctly seen 
at once and together, filled the background of the pic- 
ture, fts nearer features were not less characteristically 



TEKMINATION OF THE ALETSCH GLACIER. 



329 



alpine, being a deep and richly wooded valley, in which 
the pines are interspersed with singular dome-shaped 
rocks, rising from the bottom near a spot called Auf der 
Platte. In the more immediate foreground, was a solitary 
green meadow, quite uninhabited, but containing two or 
three barns, reached by a lofty and picturesque wooden 
bridge across the Massa, which foams and roars beneath in 
a terrific manner. A little lower, the torrent is crossed by 
a water conduit, which conveys a stream from the Bell 
Alp all the way to the meadows of Ried, near the chalets 
of Morill (which are destitute of water), the distance being 
several leagues. The conduit is said to be carried along 
the face of the precipices through the gorge of the Massa, 
with great boldness, at a dizzy elevation, and the peasants 
are accustomed to pass from one place to the other, by 
means of the precarious footing which it affords. The way 
to Briegg from the meadow just mentioned, offers no diffi- 
culty, but many picturesque sites, and everywhere may be 
seen the astonishing forms of the roches moutonnees, which 
have evidently been abraded under the anciently extended 
ice of Aletsch. 




THE GLACIER DU TOUR FROM THE AIGUILLE DE LA G LIE RE — CH AMO U N I . 



CHAPTER Y. 



NARRATIVE OF THE PASSAGE OF THE COL DE 
SALENA, FROM THE VALLEY OF CHAMOUNI TO 
THAT OF FERRET IN 1850. 

PECULIARITIES OF THE CHAIN OF MONT BLANC— GLACIER OF LE TOUR LITTLE VISITED — 
LEAVE THE COL DE BALME— ASCEND THE GLACIER— ITS FEATURES— ATTAIN THE 
RIDGE— ITS UNEXPECTED ELEVATION— EXCEEDS THE COL DU GEANT— PROPOSED AS 
AN EXPERIMENTAL STATION— DESCENT ON THE GLACIER OF SALENA— FINE PROTOGINE 
— TOPOGRAPHY — DIFFICULT ROUT R— SUDDEN FOG— EXTRICATION— REACH ORSIERES IN 
THE VAL FERRET. 

In a former work I have described the greater part of 
the chain or mountain group of Mont Blanc, particularly 
with reference to its glaciers. 

It is remarkable not less on account of its isolation, 
both geologically and topographically, from the rest of the 



AN UNDESCRIBED PASS OF THE CHAIN OF MONT BLANC. 331 

Alps, than for its great elevation and inaccessibility. It is 
in fact merely linked on to the Alps of the Tarentaise on 
one hand, and those of Mont Velan on the other, by the 
secondary passes of the Cols de la Seigne and Ferret, which 
form, neither geologically nor otherwise, a prolongation of 
the group. The axis of the range of Mont Blanc runs 
nearly S.W. and N. E. ; it may be said to terminate with 
the Col de Bonhomme on the one hand, and the mountains 
about Trient on the other.* In this extent of twenty-five 
or thirty English miles, only a single pass has ever been 
described, that of the Col du Geant, which is above 11,000 
feet high. Besides this, are, of course, the terminal passes 
of the Col de Bonhomme and of Forclaz, and the Col de 
Balma, and the connecting attachments of the Col de la 
Seigne and Col Ferret, already mentioned. All of these 
have been described in my former work. 

Having learnt some years previously to 1846 the exis- 
tence of a pass quite undescribed, and known to only one 
or two natives of the valley of Chamouni, communicating 
by the glacier of Le Tour to the Swiss Val Ferret, I 
attempted it in that year, but was foiled by bad weather. 
During a very hasty journey in 1850, I was more fortu- 
nate ; and as the information I then obtained throws some 
new light upon the topography of this part of the chain of 
Mont Blanc, and as the excursion itself offers some interest, 
I now publish an account of it from notes made at the time. 

The glacier of Le Tour is the only one of those descend- 
ing into the valley of Chamouni which I had not previously 
carefully examined. It descends in a wide, though not 

* See the map of the Pennine chain of Alps in my Travels in the Alps 
of Savoy, and the glacier-map in Johnston's Physical Atlas. The position 
of the glacier of Salena is there, however, incorrect. 



332 



ASCENT OF THE JUNGFRAU. 



very imposing mass, immediately above the village of the 
same name, and occupies, for a long way, the right of the 
spectator who ascends from Chamouni towards the Col de 
Balme. It is lodged in a spacious valley, parallel to that 
of the glacier of Argentiere, and to the eastward of it ; it is 
commanded by the summit called the Aiguille du Tour to 
the east, and by the stately Aiguille d' Argentiere to the west. 
Its general position amongst the mountains may be best 
judged of from the vignette at the head of this chapter, 
which was drawn from a point pretty nearly due west of 
the glacier, being the summit of one of the aiguilles be- 
longing to the range of the Breven, and behind the Col de 
Flegere, the height of the spectator being more than 9500 
feet above the sea.'"' The extreme left of the figure shows 
the slopes between the glacier of Le Tour and the Col de 
Balme ; and the rugged mountains immediately above, form 
that part of the ridge which separates Savoy from Switzer- 
land, and the basin of the Arve from that of the Trient, 
as well as the glacier of that name from the Glacier du 
Tour. As this last presents few noticeable features beyond 
its extent, having neither icy pinnacles, narrow gorges, nor 
a cavern comparable to the source of the Arveron, it is 
little noticed by passing tourists, and is probably quite 
unvisited by them. 

Having determined, however, to trace the glacier to its 
source, and, if circumstances allowed, to descend into Swit- 
zerland by the glacier of Salena, with which I understood 
that it communicated, I slept at the Col de Balme on the 
19th of July 1850, in company, as usual, with my tried 
guide, Auguste Balmat. The weather proved so stormy, 

* 3140 above the Col de Flegere, by a good barometrical observation, 
17th July 1850. 



ASCENT OF THE GLACIER DU TOUR. 



333 



that I expected nothing but a repetition of the disappoint- 
ment of my former attempt. But as it appeared to improve 
the following morning, we started, taking Michel Charlet, 
the tenant of the chalet on the Col de Balme, as a guide, 
(the route being as new to Balmat as myself) though it 
was already half-past eight o'clock, with the intention of at 
least exploring the glacier of Le Tour. 

By sleeping at the Col de Balme, we have the immense 
advantage of starting from a level of nearly 7300 English 
feet above the sea. Walking first nearly on a level through 
the pastures towards the glacier, we soon began to ascend 
grassy steeps, in order to avoid the precipices which face 
the eastern side of the glacier of Le Tour. Having reached 
a certain height, we were compelled to descend a little, be- 
fore gaining (at ten o'clock) the snow slopes, which still 
occupied the space between the moraine and hill side. 
These were next to be ascended, which, in consequence of 
the extreme softness of the snow, was fatiguing. At length, 
we got fairly upon the glacier, which (after attaining a cer- 
tain elevation) continues to rise with much steadiness and 
uniformity, but which was everywhere covered with tole- 
rably soft snow. From the considerable elevation at which 
we first joined the glacier, we soon reached the level of the 
neve, and, keeping too near the centre, became involved for 
a time amongst its enormous chasms. From these we with- 
drew to the left without serious difficulty, and continued to 
traverse the snowy basin, which here attains its widest ex- 
pansion, until we passed close to the small bare rock (called 
by the mountaineers rognon) marked c' in the sketch, page 
330, at 12 h. 50 m. The chief part of the ascent was now 
accomplished, and we stood face to face with the Aiguille 
d'Argentiere, which had a splendid appearance, being cur- 



334 



ASCENT OF THE JUNGFRAU. 



tained with steep glaciers on its eastern side. We continued 
to advance steadily, but with labour, over the snow-fields, 
which still separated us from the rocky ridge of the Alps. 
Fresh snow lay to a considerable depth, and the hot sun 
rendered the effort of wading through it more fatiguing. 
But this was soon forgotten, in the pleasure of watching the 
summits, which gradually displayed themselves. Referring 
to the same sketch as before, b is the Aiguille du Tour ; c 
is a snowy summit, overlooking the upper basin of the Gla- 
cier de Trient, and is steep on the east side ; d and e are 
pyramids of rock, forming the ridge of the Alps. That to 
the right (e) is a very beautiful aiguille, and is conspicuous 
from a distance. It is without a name. 

The ascent continued, though more gently, from the 
rognon to the Col between d and £, where we arrived at half- 
past one, five hours from the Col de Balme. The weather 
had still an unsettled appearance. Mists concealed many 
of the summits behind us, and also the more distant chain 
of the Great St. Bernard before us. The nearer peaks and 
glaciers were quite clear. The snow had drifted with vio- 
lence into this ravine, and we took shelter from the force 
of the wind on a platform of rock a few feet below the level 
of the drifted snow. The scene towards the Val Ferret was 
extremely grand. Immediately beneath us, a very precipi- 
tous slope of frozen snow covered the rocks on which we 
stood, overhanging the glacier of Salena, which lay some 
hundred feet below. This glacier fills a fine circus of wild 
rocks, of which the part A B e d E* (see the Plan on the 
next page) corresponds to the main chain, separating the 
glaciers of Argentiere, Tour, and Trient, from those of the 

* The position where we stood was between the summits d and e, which 
are denoted by the same letters both cn the plan and sketch, page 335. 



PLAN OF THE GLACIER OF SALENA. 



335 



Val Ferret. The chain F of wild glacier-clad rocks sepa- 
rates this glacier from others, also descending into Val 
Ferret, whilst the chain M stretches towards the glacier and 




PLAN OP THE GLACIER OF SALENA. 



chapel of Omy. The glacier of Salena is forced through 
the narrow gorge, bounded by the precipitous rocks H and 
L. A glance sufficed to shew the great difficulties to be 
experienced in descending the Swiss side. 

Having reconnoitred our position, I proceeded to ob- 



336 



ASCENT OF THE JUNGFRAH. 



serve the barometer (a syphon, by Bunten) which stood at 
l h 30 m — 505.2 millim.— Attached Ther. + 4° Cent.— Detached, 30° Fah. 

After a pause, I read again 

504.3 millim. 0. 5 Cent. ... 29 „ 

I immediately perceived that we were at a height equal, 
if not superior, to that of the Col du Geant. Subsequent 
calculation indicated 4044 feet above the chalet of the Col 
de Balme, which, from five comparisons made with the ob- 
servatory of Geneva, is 7291 English feet, or 2220 metres 
above the sea, a result agreeing closely with the recent 
measurement by M. Favre, which is 2222 metres. Adding 
this result to the former, we obtain 11,335 English feet for 
the height of the granitic axis at the lowest point between 
the glaciers of La Tour and Salena on the side of the Swiss 
Val Ferret. By a single direct barometrical comparison 
with Geneva, I obtained 11,284 English feet above the sea, 
or 140 feet higher than the Col du G^ant, and nearly 1200 
feet higher than Mont Buet, which lies towards the north- 
west, exactly in the prolongation of the axis of the Glacier 
of Le Tour. 

This unexpected result suggests some interesting consi- 
derations. There are few spots of the same elevation so 
easily accessible, and it is unquestionable that some of the 
numerous peaks which rise from this lofty platform could 
be ascended without risk, to a height of some hundred feet 
more. The rocks hemming in the Glacier du Tour present 
shelter against the severity of the terrific gales which blow 
at these altitudes. An observer might be stationed here 
for meteorological observations, with a degree of security 

* The barometers were carefully prepared by Professor Plantamour, at 
Ceneva, a few days later. 



EEMAKKABLE HEIGHT OF THE COL. 



337 



and ease which Saussure never enjoyed in his perilous en- 
campment on the Col du Geant. Provisions could be regu- 
larly obtained from the elevated station of the Col de Balme, 
which is within a walk of which a mountaineer thinks 
little, and devoid of danger. Even the extent of surface 
which the mountains here present at so great a height, is 
" itself very favourable to several kinds of observation. 

I have called the fact of the great elevation of this part 
of the chain of Mont Blanc unexpected, both because it was 
entirely so to myself, and because the existing maps and 
models gave an entirely different idea. Even the admir- 
able model of M. Sene, which I inspected soon afterwards 
at Geneva, shows a rapid depression in this part of the 
ridge, which indeed might have been imagined from the 
rapidity with which it dies out altogether in the space of a 
few miles in the direction of Martigny. 

The temperature of the air, as we have seen, was three 
degrees (Fahrenheit) below freezing. As we turned round 
and, facing the north wind, clambered from under the shel- 
tering snow drift, we first perceived its biting coldness, and 
at the same moment the strong draught of air setting through 
the gorge, nearly detached all our hats in a moment, and 
actually carried Balmat's over the precipice down to the 
glacier of Salena. We were then struck, whilst looking in 
each others faces, at the pinched and ghastly appearance 
which all presented. Both the guides looked nearly blood- 
less ; but none of us felt unwell. We took some brandy as 
a precaution (probably a needless one) against the cold, and 
tied our handkerchiefs over our ears. Charlet now told us 
that when here twelve years before, he had succeeded in 
descending on the glacier of Salena by turning round the 
north side of the peak J, (which is partly of rock, partly of 

z 



338 



ASCENT OP THE JUNGFBAU. 



snow, and appears to be accessible) in the direction of the 
glacier of Trient. In following this course, we passed be- 
tween the summits c and c?, and gained a point somewhat 
higher than the barometrical station. From D we had a 
view of a new glacier, or neve", which Charlet told us (and it 
is no doubt so) communicates with the glacier of Trient. 
It was by descending upon this first that he had gained the 
level of the glacier of Salena afterwards. 

The question now was, should we retrace our steps to 
, Chamouni, or push on to Orsieres? Charlet feared that 
our non-appearance at Col de Balme or Le Tour might 
create uneasiness ; but after some discussion it was agreed 
that the opportunity of proceeding was too tempting to 
be lost, especially as the weather appeared fine towards Val 
Ferret. After scarcely a minute's delay, then, we resolved 
to seek a safe place of descent to the level of the neve 
connected with the glacier of Trient, which we had to 
effect over an almost precipitous surface of hardened snow 
(which in some places presented an overhanging edge of 
alarming appearance), but which admitted of a passage at 
one point with little difficulty or danger. This snow cliff 
scarcely existed when Charlet formerly passed — an instance 
of the great changes undergone by the glacier regions. Being 
now on the level of the neVe, we turned towards the right 
hand, and found a wall of rock cut through by a magnificent 
gateway, flanked by two pinnacles of highly crystalline pro- 
togine not many yards asunder, between which we passed 
with the greatest ease, and, descending a snow slope of no 
great height, we found ourselves on the neve" of the glacier 
of Salena. The abruptness of the change and the beauty of 
the portal (like the ports of the Pyrenees, but still narrower) 
rendered this a very striking and peculiar pass. The basin 



TOPOGEAPHY OF THE GLACIER BASIN. 



339 



in which we now found ourselves is remarkably enclosed by- 
precipitous rocks, everywhere interspersed with glaciers 
and perpetual snow. Our station between the peaks d and 
e now appeared at a great height above a most precipitous 
snow slope, toward which Auguste long and wistfully looked 
for his lost hat. Behind the peak e, to the westward, it 
appeared as if a passage might lead from the glacier of Le 
Tour to that of Salena, but Charlet assured us that he had 
formerly explored the glacier of Le Tour and found no exit 
in that direction. It appeared to us not impossible that a 
pass might exist from the head of the Glacier d'Argentiere 
directly to the glacier of Salena, between e and the very 
white summit marked Aiguille Blanche ; but my recollec- 
tion of the Glacier d'Argentiere is not favourable to this idea. 
Charlet strongly insisted that the Glacier d'Argentiere does 
not terminate behind the Aiguille Blanche, as I thought, 
but, bending, stretches to the S.W. behind the summit A, 
which I rather conjectured to be the summit seen to the 
S.E. of the Jardin, and marked in my map of the Mer de 
Glace. 

The neVe of the glacier of Salena, seen from the point, or 
rather the snowy basin at which we were now arrived, might 
well appear to have no issue. The formidable barriers of rock, 
between which the glacier descends almost precipitously, 
might seem to bar a passage in the direction of the valley. 
From Mugnier's account (the guide of Chamouni, whom I 
engaged in 1846 for this excursion), it appears certain that 
he did not attempt to descend (his words to me, I recollect, 
were, " Nous n'avons pas ose de descendre,") but he had 
preferred crossing the lofty range somewhere about F, by 
which means he arrived at the glacier of La Neuva, by 
which he descended near the Col Ferret. Trusting, how- 



340 



ASCENT OF THE JUNGFRAU. 



ever, to Charlet's report of what he had actually done (for 
the advancing afternoon left us no time for abortive at- 
tempts), we resolved to descend as much as possible by the 
Glacier de Salena. We accordingly secured ourselves once 
more together by ropes, and soon came amongst newly open- 
ing crevasses as we approached the gorge which offered the 
great obstacle to our passage. We resolved to retreat to the 
left bank of the glacier, and to dine on the rock at K, near 
abundant streams of snow water descending from a glacier 
connected with the heights above us on the left, amidst a 
perfect chaos of stupendous blocks of the finest granite, or 
rather protogine, anywhere to be seen in the Alps. This 
was at 3h. 10m. ; at 3h. 45m. we were ready to start, and 
again used the ropes for a short space, but, soon clearing 
the snow, we abandoned them, and following for a little 
way the left bank of the glacier, as it got steeper and 
steeper, and began to break into wider crevasses, Auguste 
volunteered to go on and see whether it might be possible 
to effect the descent over the broken ice. As we more than 
anticipated, however, he returned to say that it was quite 
impracticable, and that, therefore, we must submit to 
clamber over rocks to a great height above the right bank, 
and to pass beneath the small glaciers G G, which was not 
unattended with danger, in event of stones rolling from 
them. We first crossed the main' glacier without much 
difficulty, and could now inspect those small glaciers of 
the second order, which seemed almost to overhang the 
path we must follow, so steep was the mound of debris 
which stretched from their foot. We could distinctly see 
stones on their upper fronts, but the guides pronounced them 
apparently safe, and recommended the precaution merely 
of mounting the slope of debris, and slanting over to the 



DANGEROUS FOG. 



341 



shoulder of rock H as rapidly as possible. It was a fatiguing 
but a short effort, and the risk I should say was incon- 
siderable, at least in the then condition of these glaciers. 
The summit of the rocky shoulder H was strewed with 
enormous blocks, tossed in confusion, shattered and bruised 
by the mutual shocks which they had evidently undergone 
no further back than last spring, when they had thundered 
down with the early thaw, from the upper level of the little 
glaciers. At present, however, there was no danger, and 
we paused a while for breath. 

We were now at a great height above the glacier of 
Salena, not only on account of the ascent which we had 
made, but also from the steep fall of the glacier in a con- 
trary direction. Having passed the summit of the knoll 
which had formed the great obstacle, we were now 
to seek a safe descent to the main glacier once more. This 
would have been, in all probability, a matter of small 
difficulty, had not the fogs which all day had been hover- 
ing on the summits, suddenly descended at 5 p.m., and 
enveloped us almost without warning. Our position was 
not free from anxiety, for it was impossible to see more 
than 30 or 40 yards in any direction. Charlet continued 
to advance until we found a small steep glacier in front of 
us, descending from the heights above, and completely 
barring passage in a forward direction — (it is shewn at I in 
the sketch, p. 335). We then attempted to descend the rocky 
ridge upon which we found ourselves, which fell steeply 
towards the main glacier, but a moderate distance brought 
us to impracticable precipices. In these circumstances, 
only two courses remained open, either to wait for the 
rising of the fog, or to descend from the rock upon the 
moraine and rubbish which bordered the small glacier, 



342 



ASCENT OF THE JUNGFRAU. 



and then attempt to scramble down it. We followed the 
latter course, and our descent was facilitated by long- 
snow inclines, over which we slid rapidly ; whilst so en- 
gaged, the fog happily cleared for a few minutes, revealing 
our entire position, and giving us an opportunity of resolv- 
ing on our ultimate route, for we knew that sooner or later 
we must cross the main glacier. Fortunately we had 
selected what appeared to be the only practicable descent. 
On the one side of us was an impassable glacier, on the 
other impassable cliffs. Having made very rapidly a great 
descent, we diverged to the right, passing (at a safe distance) 
under the termination of the small glacier, and soon after 
reached the level of the glacier of Salena without difficulty, 
which we also crossed with no great delay. We had then 
a tedious descent over rough moraines, here and there 
diversified by patches of the most superb vegetation, till 
we came to a torrent which we understood to descend from 
the glacier of Orny, where we halted for a short time at 
6h. 45m. This stream we also crossed without difficulty, 
and had now reached the limit of trees ; we had a stony 
and laborious descent through woods nearly pathless before 
we came to a certain track. By this time we had passed 
the termination of the glacier of Salena, which we saw 
distinctly below us. Amidst the wood were vast blocks of 
the granite of Orny, and, looking back, fine views of the 
glacier we had left ; but the mists were again fallen below 
the level of the place of our perplexity, so that, but for the mo- 
mentary rise, we must have remained in much anxiety. 
At 7h. 55m., we reached the village of Praz de Fort, in Val 
Ferret, close to the remarkable moraine which protrudes 
into the valley, and which attracts the attention of all 
travellers. An hour's sharp walking brought us to Orsieres, 



ARRIVAL AT ORSIERES. 



343 



which we entered at 9 p.m., 12^ hours from the Col de 
Balme. 

The junction of protogine and gneiss, on the north 
side of the glacier, appeared to be not very far above our 
ingress on the glacier of Le Tour. On the south side, 
the gneiss formation is comparatively narrow, I did not 
notice the junction accurately, being too happy at our 
escape from the fog to think of anything else ; but I believe 
that it was near the point where we crossed the glacier of 
Salena after our rapid descent. The calcareous schists 
appeared in the wood on our left, some time before reaching 
Praz de Fort. 



INDEX. 



Aalesund, 100. 
Aardals-fiord, 175. 

Aar, Lower Glacier of the, 297, 299 ; 
Upper Glacier, 300, 305. 

Agassiz, M., 297, &c. 

Agriculture in the Arctic Circle, 54. 

Aletsch, Glacier of, 300, 314 ; its struc- 
ture and blue bands, 326 ; its in- 
ferior termination, 328 ; Lake of, 
310, 314. 

Allevard, Baths of, 261. 

Alps, Journals of Excursions in the, 
255, &c. 

Alps, the Bernese, 296 ; views of, 301. 
Alstahong, 49. 
Alten, snow-line at, 209. 
Alten-fiord, 85 ; Alten river, 93. 
Alversund, 105. 

Ancient climate of Norway, 242. &c. 
Ancient glaciers — See Glaciers, ancient. 
Arendal, coast near, 1. 
Aurlands-fiord, 146. 

" Bauta" stones, 148, 153. 

Balme, Col de, 332 ; its height, 336. 

Bergen, arrival at, 106 ; its inhabi- 
tants, 106 ; trade, 107 ; museum, 
108 ; its insulation from the rest 
of Norway, 109; its environs, 110, 
122 ; its climate, 111. 112, 215. 

Bergs-fiord, Glacier of, 80. 

Bernese Alps, glaciers of the, 296, &c. ; 
their grouping, 299 ; panoramas 
of, 301. 

Bensjordstind, mountain and glacier, 66. 
Biddulph, Captain, 221, 222, note. 

2 



Birch, limiting level of, in Norway, 212, 
214. 

Blaamands-field or Alinajalos, 56, 230. 
Bodo, 53. 

Bondhuus, hamlet, 130 ; valley of, 131, 
&c. ; moraines near, 131 ; glacier 
of, 133. 

Borge-field, 226. 

Borgund, church at, 181. 

Bosekop, 84, 93. 

Bourg d'Oisans, 264. 

Bravais, M., 89. 

Brono, 47. 

Buch, L. von, 30, 37, 123; on the 

limits of vegetation, 211. 
Buer, Glacier of, 221. 

Cairngorm, 25. 
Carriole or Kariole, 6. 
Celar, Col de, 283. 

"Chains" of mountains seldom conti- 
nuous, 197, 198. 

Chambers, Mr. R., 89, 241. 

Chamouni, passage from, to Val Ferret, 
330. 

Christiania, the capital of Norway, 3 ; 
its climate, 5 ; university, 5 ; re- 
turn to, 184; population, 5. — See 
Additions and Corrections. 

Christiansund, 99. 

Climate of Norway, 198, &c. ; ancient, 
242. 

Climate of Christiania and Bergen com- 
pared, 111 ; of Alten, 88. 

Cloud, majestic, seen from the Jung- 
frau, 322. 



34G 



INDEX. 



Condamina, Glacier de la, 275. 
Crevasses, enormous, 308, 317. 
Crowe, Consul, 85, 231, note. 

Dauphine, excursions in, 255, &c. 
Desiderata on the Physical Geography 

of Norway, 245. 
Diallage, 96, 123. 

" Dirt bands" on glaciers, 163 ; at Kron- 
dal, 166. 

Dovre-field, 15, &c; limit of pine, ib. ; 

traces of ancient glaciers, 24, 27 ; 

geology, 33 ; snowfields, 225. 
Drivstuen, 31. 

Durocher, M., on the Glaciers of Justedal, 
160, 161, note. 

Eclipse, total, of the sun at Bergen, 1 1 3, 
&c. ; ancient total eclipse at Stik- 
lastad in Vserdal, 116; other total 
eclipses, 118. 

Elevation, alleged crater of, 259 ; axis 
of, 294. 

Elie do Beaumont, M., 259, 292, &c. 

Esmark on the Ancient Glaciers of the 
Sogne-fiord, 103, note, and of Nor- 
way in general, 237. 

Excessive climates, 200. 

Fields or Fjelds, 191. 
Fieldstuer, 32. 

Fillefield, Pass of the, 181 ; snow line, 

208. 
Finmarken, 68. 
Finns, 96. 

Finsteraarhorn, glaciers adjoining the, 
299. 

Firn or Neve, 305, note; crevasses in 
the, 308. 

Fjccrland, 149 ; glaciers of, 150, 223. 
Facrder, island of, 3. 
Folden-fiord, 57. 

Folgefond, snowfield of, 128, 136, 140, 

220 ; its height, 138. 
Fondalen, glaciers of, 52, 227. 
Forbud-Seddel, 7, 124. 
Fureberg waterfall, 129. 

Galdhiipiggen, Store, the highest moun- 
tain in Norway — see Ymes-ficld. 



Geology of Dovre-field, 33 ; of Kaa- 
fiord, 95 ; near Bergen, 123 ; of 
Naroedal, 145 ; of Sogndal, 155. 

Geology of the mountains of Dauphine, 
259, 276, 288, 294. 

Geological agency of glaciers, 237, &c. 

Glaciers and snowfields of Norway de- 
scribed, 217, &c. ; the conditions 
of their ancient extension, 242, 
&c. 

Glaciers, modern, in Norway, referred to 
by Pontoppidan, 218 ; synonymes 
of, 218 ;— at Sneehattan, 21, 225 ; 
Fondalen, 52, 227 ; Sulitelma and 
Blaamands-field, 56, 228 ; in Lo- 
fodden Islands, 63-65, 230; in 
Andorgo, 66; Bensjordstind, 66; 
Ringvadso, 74 ; Jagervandstind, 
75 ; Pippertind in Lyngens -fiord, 
75 ; Reendalen, 76 ; Kaagen, 77 ; 
Jokuls-field, 78, 231 ; Bergs-fiord, 
80 ; Nus-fiord, 81 ; Bondhuus on 
the Hardanger, 133; Folgefond, 
136, &c. ; at Fresvig (?), 147; 
Fjssrland, 149, 223; Suphellen, 
150 ; near Sogndal, 155, 223 ; of 
Justedal, 160, &c, 223; of Lodal, 
161, note, 224 ; dirt bands of, 163, 
166; of Krondal, 163, 224; of 
Nygaard, 167-224 ; of Buer, 221 ; 
Matre-fiord, 221 ; of Hallings Jo- 
kulen, 222 ; of Brendendal, 224, 
note; Borge-field, 226 ; glaciers of 
Norway and Switzerland compared, 
232. 

Glaciers, modern, in the Alps — La Con- 
damina, 275 ; of the Col de Celar, 
283; of La Grave, 289; of the 
Lower Aar, 297, 299 ; Upper Aar, 
300, 305 ; of Viesch, 300, 308 ; of 
Aletsch, 300, 314, 326-8 ; of Le 
Tour, 331 ; of Salena, 335. 

Glaciers of Himalaya, 163, 240. 

Glaciers, laws of their motion and its 
cause, 234, 235. 

Glaciers, ancient traces of — on Dovre- 
field, 24 ; at Vaarstige, 27 ; at 
Torghattan, 45 ; at Folden-fiord, 
with some remarks on ancient 
glaciers generally, 58; in Lofod- 



INDEX. 



347 



den, 64 ; in Alten, 91 ; entrance of 
Sogne-fiord, 102, 103 ; remarkable 
observation of Esmark respecting, 
103, note ; at Logsund, 126 ; at 
Svoldal on the Hardanger, 129 ; 
moraine at Sogndal, 155 ; polished 
rocks in Justedal, 166, 174; Es- 
mark on the Ancient Glaciers of 
Norway, 237 ; Moraine of Vasbot- 
ten, 239 ; Can all the phenomena 
be thus accounted for? 241. 

Gliere, Aiguille de la, 330, 332. 

Godemar, Val, 280. 

Gousta-field, 220. | 

Granite, its superposition to lias in 
Dauphine, 288 ; of Orny, 342. 

Grimsel Hospice, 296, 303. 

Gudvangen, 145. 

Gulbrandsdal, 10. 

Gulf-stream, the, 201, 202, 245, note. 

Hallings Jokulen, Glaciers of, 222. 
Hammerfest, 83. 
Hardangerfield, 208, 221. 
Hansteen, Professor, 116. 
Heath, Rev. J. M., 257, 296. 
Hebrides, Norwegian coast compared to 

the, 2. 
Hestmando, 51. 

Himalaya, glaciers of, 163, 240. 
Hindo in Lofodden, 64. 
Horneln, cliffs of, 101. 

Iceland, snow line and climate of, 243. 
Infernets, Col des, 293. 
Isothermal lines, 199, 201. 

Jerkind, 17. 

Jokuls-field, glaciers of, 79, 81. 

Jungfrau, ascent of the, 312, &c. ; de- 
scription of the summit, 321. 

Justedal, approach to, 158 ; church and 
parsonage, 159 ; height of, ib.; 
Glaciers of, 160, &c, 223. 

Justedals Brseen, 149, 160, &c, 223. 

Kaa-fiord, 85 ; climate of, 87 ; geology 
of, 95. 

Kaagen, Island and Glacier, 77. 
Keelfoss, 145. 



Kirkwall, 4. 
Kjerringo, 57. 

Kjolen or Koelen Mountains, 40, 193, 

&c. 
Kloven, 66. 

Krondal, 1 62 ; Glaciers of, 163, &c, 224. 
Kunnen, remarkable headland, 53. 
Kvindherred-fiord, 127.' 

La Berarde in Dauphine. 270. 

La Chapelle in Dauphine, 279. 

La Grave, village in Dauphine, 290 ; 

Pic du midi de, 288 ; Glacier de, 

289 ; views from, 291, 292 ; its 

height, 293. 
Lapps, visit to, 70, &c, Lapp races, 

96, 97. 
Lserdalsoren, 176. 
Lautaret, Col de, 288. 
Lekanger, 147, 148. 
Lindesnaes, 1. 

Leuthold, Jacob, the guide of Hasli, 

303, &c. 
Leprosy, 110. 

Lodal, Glacier of, 161, note; 224. 

Lodals-kaabe, 160, 161, note. 

Lofodden Islands, extraordinary pros- 
pect of, 60 ; fishery at, 61 ; gla- 
ciers, 230. 

Logsund, 125 ; glacier markings, 126. 

Lougen River, 10, 11. 

Lous, Captain, 42, 114. 

Lovunden and Threnen Isles, 50. 

Lyngen-fiord, 74. 

Mackintosh, Mr. John, 296. 
Maurienne, St. Jean de, 293. 
Marjelen, chalets of, 310. 
Matre-fiord Glacier, 221. 
Meteorology of Alten, 87. 
Meteorology of Norway, desiderata, 247. 
Meyers, their ascent of the Jungfrau, 
312. 

Midnight in the Arctic Circle, 53, 79. 
Mineral waters of Dauphine, 260. 
Miosen Lake, 9. 
Miosen, Little, Lake of, 182. 
Molde, 100. 

Moraines, 131 ; see Glaciers, ancient 
traces of. 



348 



INDEX. 



Moraine at Sogndal, 155 ; at Vasbotten, 
239 ; at Praz de Fort, 342. 

Moranger-fiord, 129. 

Munch, Professor, 192, 222, 224, 228, 
note, and elsewhere. 

Nargla, standing stones at, 154. 

Narcedal, 145 ; Naroe-fiord, ib. 

Naumann, 33, 123, and elsewhere. 

Nordland, 47. 

" Norit " formation, 144. 

Norway, physical geography of; see 

Physical Geography ; — sections of, 

197. 

Nus-fiord, glaciers of, 81. 

Nygaard, Glacier of, 167, 224 ; its im- 
mense increase in 1740, 169 ; cha- 
racter of its ice, 171, &c. 

Oberaar Glacier, 300, 305 ; Col of, 306. 
Oerkel River, 35. 
Oevrehuus, 134. 

(Extind, 51. ' 
Oisans, Mountains of, 258, &c. ; Bourg 

d'Oisans, 264. 
Olaf, death of King, 117. 
Oos, 123. 

Orny, granite of, 342. 
Orography, 187 ; of Norway, 189. 
Orsieres, arrival at, 342. 
Oxe-fiord, 82. 

Pelvoux, Mont, 277, 286. 

Perpetual snow in Norway, 207. 

Photometrical observations, 69, 80, 85. 

Physical Geography of Norway, 185, 
&c. ; Configuration, 189 ; on some 
peculiarities of the climate, 198 ; 
on the position of the snow line, 
205 ; enumeration of the principal 
snow fields and glaciers, 217 ; its 
glaciers compared with those of 
Switzerland, 232 ; the former ex- 
tension of glaciers, 237 ; observa- 
tions to be made, 245 ; on some 
peculiarities of the scenery, 248. 

Pic du Midi de la Grave, 288. 

Pilotage in Norway, 104. 

Pippertind glacier, 75. 

Plasticity of glaciers, 172, 235. 



Ppntopiddan, Bishop of Bergen, 108, 

182, note ; 193, note; 199, 218. 
Posting in Norway, 7, 124, 177, &c. 

Quaens, the race of, 96, 97. 
Quaenvig, 91 ; grooved rocks, 91. 

Rafte-sund, 63. 

Rain in Norway and Sweden, 203 ; at 
Alten, 89 ; at Bergen, 112 ; in 
Norway and the Alps, 233. 

Red snow, 307. 

Reipas, 94. 

Ringerige, 18^4. 

Ringvadso, 74. 

Roads in Norway, how maintained, 29. 

Rodo, 52. ' 

Ronneid on the Lyster-fiord, 157. 
Roth-thal, 318. 

Rousses, Les Grandes, 258, 291. 

Sais,Col de, passage of the, 275, &c. ; its 

height, 277. 
Salena, Col de, 330, 334 ; its height, 

336 ; Glacier de, 335, &c. 
Salten-fiord, 54. 

Scenery of Norway, remarks on the, 8, 
248. 

Sections of Scandinavia, 197. 
Seiland, 83. 

Seven Lakes, the, in Dauphine, 262. 
Seven Sisters, mountain of the, 49. 
Skjarvo, 76. 

Smith, Christian, the Norwegian bota- 
nist, 219, 222, and elsewhere. 

Snow fields and glaciers of Norway 
enumerated, 217, &c. 

Sneehiittan, 16, 19 ; ascent of, 20 ; gla- 
cier of, 21, 225 ; height of, 22 ; 
view from, 23 ; snow line, 226. 

Snow line in Norway, 205 ; mainly de- 
termined by the summer tempera- 
ture, 206 ; tabular results, 212, 
214 ; snow line in Iceland, 243. 

Sogne-fiord, 146, &c. ; entrance of, 102 ; 
its glacier markings, 103, and note. 

Sogndal, 154 ; moraine near, 155 ; geo- 
logy of, ib. 

Solvorn, 156. 

Sor-fiord, 139. 



INDEX. 



349 



St. Christophe, valley of, 266 ; village 

of, 269. 
Stadt, headland of, 101, 196. 
Stalheim, 144, 145. 
Steamers, Norwegian, 104. 
Stejlo in Lofodden, 62. 
Stiklastad, total eclipse of a.d. 1030 

at, 116. 
Stjerno, 83. 

Storelv, valley of the, 158. 

Storfond, 222. 

Storthing, 5. 

Studer, Mr. G., 325. 

Suledals, or BykHe-field, 220. 

Sulitelma, range of, 55, 228 ; snow line 
near, 209. — See Additions and Cor- 
rections; glaciers of, 228. 

Summer heat in Norway, 203 ; mainly 
determines the snow line, 156. 

Suphelle Glacier, 150, 223 ; its re- 
markably low level, 151. 

Sweden, the climate more continental 
than in Norway, 203. 

Switzerland, its glaciers compared to 
those of Norway, 232. 

Talvig, 83. 

Temerity of a guide, 317, note. 

Teroe, a water station, 126. 

Terraces at Throndhjem, 37 ; at Alten- 
fiord, 89 ; at Quaenvig, 91 ; at 
Aalesund, 101 ; at Lekanger, 148. 

Throndhjem, 36, 99 ; cathedral, 36 ; 
terraces, 37 ; climate, 38 ; its po- 
sition with reference to the geo- 
graphy of Norway, 39-41. 

Throndhjems-fiord, 43, 99. 

Tofte, 13. 

Torghattan, its cavern, 44 ; glacial ac- 
tion on, 45. 



Tour, Glacier du, 331. 

Travelling in Norway, 6, 124 ; in spring 

time, 30. 
Tromsb, 68. 

Trugberg, near Jungfrau, 315. 

Ulfs-fiord, 74. 
Ullensvang, 140. 
TJriage, baths of, 261. 
Utne, 141. 

Vaago in Lofodden, 63. 
Vaarstige, 26-31 ; glacier markings of, 
27. 

Vaerdal, eclipse at, 116. 
Vaers, 43. 
Valders, 183. 

Val Louise in Dauphine, 285. 
Vegetation at Christiania, 5 ; in lat. 

66°, 55 ; in lat. 70°, 91 ; at Bergen, 

122. 

Vegetation, limits of in lat. 70°, 211. 
Veined structure of glacier ice, 173, 326. 
Vetties Giel, savage scenery of, 175, note. 
Viesch, Glacier of, 300, 308. 
Villages, absence of in Norway, 12. 
Vinje, 144. 
Vossevangen, 141. 

Wahlenberg, 209, 218, and elsewhere. 
Wasenhorn, panorama of the, 301. 
Waterfalls, as elements of scenery, 249 ; 

cause of their profusion in Norway, 

251. 

Waterfall of Fureberg, 129. 
Wittich, Mr., quoted, 221, 232. 

" Yachts," Norwegian, 48. 
Ymes-field, 22, 157, note, 175, note; 
glaciers of, 225 ; map of, ib. 



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